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Kilteni K, Ehrsson HH. Dynamic changes in somatosensory and cerebellar activity mediate temporal recalibration of self-touch. Commun Biol 2024; 7:522. [PMID: 38702520 PMCID: PMC11068753 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06188-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024] Open
Abstract
An organism's ability to accurately anticipate the sensations caused by its own actions is crucial for a wide range of behavioral, perceptual, and cognitive functions. Notably, the sensorimotor expectations produced when touching one's own body attenuate such sensations, making them feel weaker and less ticklish and rendering them easily distinguishable from potentially harmful touches of external origin. How the brain learns and keeps these action-related sensory expectations updated is unclear. Here we employ psychophysics and functional magnetic resonance imaging to pinpoint the behavioral and neural substrates of dynamic recalibration of expected temporal delays in self-touch. Our psychophysical results reveal that self-touches are less attenuated after systematic exposure to delayed self-generated touches, while responses in the contralateral somatosensory cortex that normally distinguish between delayed and nondelayed self-generated touches become indistinguishable. During the exposure, the ipsilateral anterior cerebellum shows increased activity, supporting its proposed role in recalibrating sensorimotor predictions. Moreover, responses in the cingulate areas gradually increase, suggesting that as delay adaptation progresses, the nondelayed self-touches trigger activity related to cognitive conflict. Together, our results show that sensorimotor predictions in the simplest act of touching one's own body are upheld by a sophisticated and flexible neural mechanism that maintains them accurate in time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantina Kilteni
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - H Henrik Ehrsson
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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2
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Ali Y, Montani V, Cesari P. Neural underpinnings of the interplay between actual touch and action imagination in social contexts. Front Hum Neurosci 2024; 17:1274299. [PMID: 38292652 PMCID: PMC10826515 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1274299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
While there is established evidence supporting the involvement of the sense of touch in various actions, the neural underpinnings of touch and action interplay in a social context remain poorly understood. To prospectively investigate this phenomenon and offer further insights, we employed a combination of motor and sensory components by asking participants to imagine exerting force with the index finger while experiencing their own touch, the touch of one another individual, the touch of a surface, and no touch. Based on the assumption that the patterns of activation in the motor system are similar when action is imagined or actually performed, we proceeded to apply a single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation over the primary motor cortex (M1) while participants engaged in the act of imagination. Touch experience was associated with higher M1 excitability in the presence and in the absence of force production imagination, but only during force production imagination M1 excitability differed among the types of touch: both biological sources, the self-touch and the touch of one other individual, elicited a significant increase in motor system activity when compared to touching a non-living surface or in the absence of touch. A strong correlation between individual touch avoidance questionnaire values and facilitation in the motor system was present while touching another person, indicating a social aspect for touch in action. The present study unveils the motor system correlates when the sensory/motor components of touch are considered in social contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Paola Cesari
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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3
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Job X, Kilteni K. Action does not enhance but attenuates predicted touch. eLife 2023; 12:e90912. [PMID: 38099521 PMCID: PMC10723797 DOI: 10.7554/elife.90912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Dominant motor control theories propose that the brain predicts and attenuates the somatosensory consequences of actions, referred to as somatosensory attenuation. Support comes from psychophysical and neuroimaging studies showing that touch applied on a passive hand elicits attenuated perceptual and neural responses if it is actively generated by one's other hand, compared to an identical touch from an external origin. However, recent experimental findings have challenged this view by providing psychophysical evidence that the perceived intensity of touch on the passive hand is enhanced if the active hand does not receive touch simultaneously with the passive hand (somatosensory enhancement) and by further attributing attenuation to the double tactile stimulation of the hands upon contact. Here, we directly contrasted the hypotheses of the attenuation and enhancement models regarding how action influences somatosensory perception by manipulating whether the active hand contacts the passive hand. We further assessed somatosensory perception in the absence of any predictive cues in a condition that turned out to be essential for interpreting the experimental findings. In three pre-registered experiments, we demonstrate that action does not enhance the predicted touch (Experiment 1), that the previously reported 'enhancement' effects are driven by the reference condition used (Experiment 2), and that self-generated touch is robustly attenuated regardless of whether the two hands make contact (Experiment 3). Our results provide conclusive evidence that action does not enhance but attenuates predicted touch and prompt a reappraisal of recent experimental findings upon which theoretical frameworks proposing a perceptual enhancement by action prediction are based.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Job
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska InstituteStockholmSweden
| | - Konstantina Kilteni
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska InstituteStockholmSweden
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud UniversityNijmegenNetherlands
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4
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Blondiaux F, Lebrun L, Hanseeuw BJ, Crevecoeur F. Impairments of saccadic and reaching adaptation in essential tremor are linked to movement execution. J Neurophysiol 2023; 130:1092-1102. [PMID: 37791388 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00165.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Essential tremor (ET) is a neurological disorder characterized by involuntary oscillations of the limbs. Previous studies have hypothesized that ET is a cerebellar disorder and reported impairments in motor adaptation. However, recent advances have highlighted that motor adaptation involves several components linked to anticipation and control, all dependent on cerebellum. We studied the contribution of both components in adaptation to better understand the adaptation impairments observed in ET from a behavioral perspective. To address this question, we investigated behavioral markers of adaptation in ET patients (n = 20) and age-matched neurologically intact volunteers (n = 20) in saccadic and upper limb adaptation tasks, probing compensation for target jumps and for velocity-dependent force fields, respectively. We found that both groups adapted their movements to the novel contexts; however, ET patients adapted to a lesser extent compared with neurologically intact volunteers. Importantly, components of the movement linked to anticipation were preserved in the ET group, whereas components linked to movement execution appeared responsible for the adaptation deficit in this group. Altogether, our results suggest that execution deficits may be a specific functional consequence of the alteration of neural pathways associated with ET.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We tested essential tremor patients' adaptation abilities in classical tasks including saccadic adaptation to target jumps and reaching adaptation to force field disturbances. Patients' adaptation was present but impaired in both tasks. Interestingly, the deficits were mainly present during movement execution, whereas the anticipatory components of movements were similar to neurologically intact volunteers. These findings reinforce the hypothesis of a cerebellar origin for essential tremor and detail the motor adaptation impairments previously found in this disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florence Blondiaux
- Institute for Information and Communication Technologies, Electronics and Applied Mathematics, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
- Institute of Neuroscience, UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Louisien Lebrun
- Institute of Neuroscience, UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
- Neurology Department, Saint-Luc University Hospital, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Bernard J Hanseeuw
- Institute of Neuroscience, UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
- Neurology Department, Saint-Luc University Hospital, Brussels, Belgium
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Radiology Department, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
- Louvain Aging Brain Lab, Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and Biotechnology (WELBIO), UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Frédéric Crevecoeur
- Institute for Information and Communication Technologies, Electronics and Applied Mathematics, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
- Institute of Neuroscience, UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
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5
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Casado-Palacios M, Tonelli A, Campus C, Gori M. Movement-related tactile gating in blindness. Sci Rep 2023; 13:16553. [PMID: 37783746 PMCID: PMC10545755 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-43526-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023] Open
Abstract
When we perform an action, self-elicited movement induces suppression of somatosensory information to the cortex, requiring a correct motor-sensory and inter-sensory (i.e. cutaneous senses, kinesthesia, and proprioception) integration processes to be successful. However, recent works show that blindness might impact some of these elements. The current study investigates the effect of movement on tactile perception and the role of vision in this process. We measured the velocity discrimination threshold in 18 sighted and 18 blind individuals by having them perceive a sequence of two movements and discriminate the faster one in passive and active touch conditions. Participants' Just Noticeable Difference (JND) was measured to quantify their precision. Results showed a generally worse performance during the active touch condition compared to the passive. In particular, this difference was significant in the blind group, regardless of the blindness duration, but not in the sighted one. These findings suggest that the absence of visual calibration impacts motor-sensory and inter-sensory integration required during movement, diminishing the reliability of tactile signals in blind individuals. Our work spotlights the need for intervention in this population and should be considered in the sensory substitution/reinforcement device design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Casado-Palacios
- DIBRIS, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- UVIP- Unit for Visually Impaired People, Italian Institute of Technology, Genoa, Italy
| | - Alessia Tonelli
- UVIP- Unit for Visually Impaired People, Italian Institute of Technology, Genoa, Italy
| | - Claudio Campus
- UVIP- Unit for Visually Impaired People, Italian Institute of Technology, Genoa, Italy
| | - Monica Gori
- UVIP- Unit for Visually Impaired People, Italian Institute of Technology, Genoa, Italy.
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Sturm S, Costa-Faidella J, SanMiguel I. Neural signatures of memory gain through active exploration in an oculomotor-auditory learning task. Psychophysiology 2023; 60:e14337. [PMID: 37209002 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Active engagement improves learning and memory, and self- versus externally generated stimuli are processed differently: perceptual intensity and neural responses are attenuated. Whether the attenuation is linked to memory formation remains unclear. This study investigates whether active oculomotor control over auditory stimuli-controlling for movement and stimulus predictability-benefits associative learning, and studies the underlying neural mechanisms. Using EEG and eye tracking we explored the impact of control during learning on the processing and memory recall of arbitrary oculomotor-auditory associations. Participants (N = 23) learned associations through active exploration or passive observation, using a gaze-controlled interface to generate sounds. Our results show faster learning progress in the active condition. ERPs time-locked to the onset of sound stimuli showed that learning progress was linked to an attenuation of the P3a component. The detection of matching movement-sound pairs triggered a target-matching P3b. There was no general modulation of ERPs through active learning. However, we found continuous variation in the strength of the memory benefit across participants: some benefited more strongly from active control during learning than others. This was paralleled in the strength of the N1 attenuation effect for self-generated stimuli, which was correlated with memory gain in active learning. Our results show that control helps learning and memory and modulates sensory responses. Individual differences during sensory processing predict the strength of the memory benefit. Taken together, these results help to disentangle the effects of agency, unspecific motor-based neuromodulation, and predictability on ERP components and establish a link between self-generation effects and active learning memory gain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Sturm
- Brainlab - Cognitive Neuroscience Research Group, Departament de Psicologia Clinica i Psicobiologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Costa-Faidella
- Brainlab - Cognitive Neuroscience Research Group, Departament de Psicologia Clinica i Psicobiologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Iria SanMiguel
- Brainlab - Cognitive Neuroscience Research Group, Departament de Psicologia Clinica i Psicobiologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain
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7
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Timar L, Job X, Orban de Xivry JJ, Kilteni K. Aging exerts a limited influence on the perception of self-generated and externally generated touch. J Neurophysiol 2023; 130:871-882. [PMID: 37609705 PMCID: PMC10642979 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00145.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Touch generated by our voluntary movements is attenuated both at the perceptual and neural levels compared with touch of the same intensity delivered to our body by another person or machine. This somatosensory attenuation phenomenon relies on the integration of somatosensory input and predictions about the somatosensory consequences of our actions. Previous studies have reported increased somatosensory attenuation in elderly people, proposing an overreliance on sensorimotor predictions to compensate for age-related declines in somatosensory perception; however, recent results have challenged this direct relationship. In a preregistered study, we used a force-discrimination task to assess whether aging increases somatosensory attenuation and whether this increase is explained by decreased somatosensory precision in elderly individuals. Although 94% of our sample (n = 108, 21-77 yr old) perceived their self-generated touches as weaker than externally generated touches of identical intensity (somatosensory attenuation) regardless of age, we did not find a significant increase in somatosensory attenuation in our elderly participants (65-77 yr old), but a trend when considering only the oldest subset (69-77 yr old). Moreover, we did not observe a significant age-related decline in somatosensory precision or a significant relationship of age with somatosensory attenuation. Together, our results suggest that aging exerts a limited influence on the perception of self-generated and externally generated touch and indicate a less direct relationship between somatosensory precision and attenuation in the elderly individuals than previously proposed.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Self-generated touch is attenuated compared with externally generated touch of identical intensity. This somatosensory attenuation has been previously shown to be increased in elderly participants, but it remains unclear whether it is related to age-related somatosensory decline. In our preregistered study, we observed a trend for increased somatosensory attenuation in our oldest participants (≥69 yr), but we found no evidence of an age-related decline in somatosensory function or a relationship of age with somatosensory attenuation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Timar
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Xavier Job
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jean-Jacques Orban de Xivry
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- KU Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Konstantina Kilteni
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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8
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Zaidel A, Salomon R. Multisensory decisions from self to world. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220335. [PMID: 37545311 PMCID: PMC10404927 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Classic Bayesian models of perceptual inference describe how an ideal observer would integrate 'unisensory' measurements (multisensory integration) and attribute sensory signals to their origin(s) (causal inference). However, in the brain, sensory signals are always received in the context of a multisensory bodily state-namely, in combination with other senses. Moreover, sensory signals from both interoceptive sensing of one's own body and exteroceptive sensing of the world are highly interdependent and never occur in isolation. Thus, the observer must fundamentally determine whether each sensory observation is from an external (versus internal, self-generated) source to even be considered for integration. Critically, solving this primary causal inference problem requires knowledge of multisensory and sensorimotor dependencies. Thus, multisensory processing is needed to separate sensory signals. These multisensory processes enable us to simultaneously form a sense of self and form distinct perceptual decisions about the external world. In this opinion paper, we review and discuss the similarities and distinctions between multisensory decisions underlying the sense of self and those directed at acquiring information about the world. We call attention to the fact that heterogeneous multisensory processes take place all along the neural hierarchy (even in forming 'unisensory' observations) and argue that more integration of these aspects, in theory and experiment, is required to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of multisensory brain function. This article is part of the theme issue 'Decision and control processes in multisensory perception'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Zaidel
- Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Roy Salomon
- Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa 3498838, Israel
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9
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Fritz C, Zimmermann E. Temporal adaptation of sensory attenuation for self-touch. Exp Brain Res 2023; 241:2333-2344. [PMID: 37606713 PMCID: PMC10471680 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-023-06688-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
The sensory consequences of our actions appear attenuated to us. This effect has been reported for external sensations that are evoked by auditory or visual events and for body-related sensations which are produced by self-touch. In the present study, we investigated the effects of prolonged exposure to a delay between an action and the generated sensation on sensory attenuation for self-touch. Previously, it has been shown that after being presented to a systematic exposure delay, artificially delayed touch can feel more intense and non-delayed touches can appear less intense. Here, we investigated the temporal spread of the temporal recalibration effect. Specifically, we wondered whether this temporal recalibration effect would affect only the delay that was used during exposure trials or if it would also modulate longer test delays. In the first two experiments, we tested three test delays (0, 100 and 400 ms) either in randomized or in blocked order. We found sensory attenuation in all three test intervals but no effect of the exposure delay. In Experiment 3, we replicated the experiment by Kilteni et al. (ELife 8:e42888, 2019. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.42888 ) and found evidence for temporal recalibration by exposure delay. Our data show that the temporal selectivity of sensory attenuation of self-touch depends on presenting a singular test delay only. Presenting multiple test delays leads to a temporally broad spread of sensory attenuation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Fritz
- Institute for Experimental Psychology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Eckart Zimmermann
- Institute for Experimental Psychology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
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10
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Colle L, Hilviu D, Boggio M, Toso A, Longo P, Abbate-Daga G, Garbarini F, Fossataro C. Abnormal sense of agency in eating disorders. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14176. [PMID: 37648816 PMCID: PMC10469170 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41345-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The feeling of controlling one's own actions and, through them, impacting the external environment (i.e. Sense of Agency-SoA) can be relevant in the eating disorders (EDs) symptomatology. Yet, it has been poorly investigated. This study aims to implicitly assess SoA exploiting the Sensory Attenuation paradigm in two groups of EDs patients (Anorexia Nervosa Restrictive and Anorexia Nervosa Binge-Purging or Bulimia Nervosa) compared to a control group. We find that controls perceive self-generated stimuli as less intense than other-generated ones showing the classic pattern of sensory attenuation. By contrast, EDs patients show the opposite pattern, with self-generated perceived as more intense than other-generated stimuli. This result indicates an alteration of the implicit component of the feeling of control in EDs patients, thus suggesting a potential implication of these results for the clinical practice and the treatment of EDs symptomatology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livia Colle
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Dize Hilviu
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Monica Boggio
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Alessandra Toso
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Turin, AOU Città della Salute e della Scienza, Turin, Italy
| | - Paola Longo
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Turin, AOU Città della Salute e della Scienza, Turin, Italy
| | - Giovanni Abbate-Daga
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Turin, AOU Città della Salute e della Scienza, Turin, Italy
| | | | - Carlotta Fossataro
- MANIBUS Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
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11
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Press C, Thomas ER, Yon D. Cancelling cancellation? Sensorimotor control, agency, and prediction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 145:105012. [PMID: 36565943 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.105012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
For decades, classic theories of action control and action awareness have been built around the idea that the brain predictively 'cancels' expected action outcomes from perception. However, recent research casts doubt over this basic premise. What do these new findings mean for classic accounts of action? Should we now 'cancel' old data, theories and approaches generated under this idea? In this paper, we argue 'No'. While doubts about predictive cancellation may urge us to fundamentally rethink how predictions shape perception, the wider pyramid using these ideas to explain action control and agentic experiences can remain largely intact. Some adaptive functions assigned to predictive cancellation can be achieved through quasi-predictive processes, that influence perception without actively tracking the probabilistic structure of the environment. Other functions may rely upon truly predictive processes, but not require that these predictions cancel perception. Appreciating the role of these processes may help us to move forward in explaining how agents optimise their interactions with the external world, even if predictive cancellation is cancelled from theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare Press
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, UK; Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, UCL, 12 Queen Square, London WC1N 3AR, UK.
| | - Emily R Thomas
- Neuroscience Institute, New York University School of Medicine, 550 1st Ave, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Daniel Yon
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, UK
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12
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Linchevski I, Maimon A, Golland Y, Zeharia N, Amedi A, Levit-Binnun N. Integrating mind and body: Investigating differential activation of nodes of the default mode network. Restor Neurol Neurosci 2023; 41:115-127. [PMID: 37742669 PMCID: PMC10741374 DOI: 10.3233/rnn-231334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The default mode network (DMN) is a large-scale brain network tightly correlated with self and self-referential processing, activated by intrinsic tasks and deactivated by externally-directed tasks. OBJECTIVE In this study, we aim to investigate the novel approach of default mode activation during progressive muscle relaxation and examine whether differential activation patterns result from the movement of different body parts. METHODS We employed neuroimaging to investigate DMN activity during simple body movements, while performing progressive muscle relaxation. We focused on differentiating the neural response between facial movements and movements of other body parts. RESULTS Our results show that the movement of different body parts led to deactivation in several DMN nodes, namely the temporal poles, hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and posterior cingulate cortex. However, facial movement induced an inverted and selective positive BOLD pattern in some of these areas precisely. Moreover, areas in the temporal poles selective for face movement showed functional connectivity not only with the hippocampus and mPFC but also with the nucleus accumbens. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that both conceptual and embodied self-related processes, including body movements during progressive muscle relaxation, may be mapped onto shared brain networks. This could enhance our understanding of how practices like PMR influence DMN activity and potentially offer insights to inform therapeutic strategies that rely on mindful body movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inbal Linchevski
- Sagol Center for Brain and Mind, Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, Reichman University, Herzliya, Israel
| | - Amber Maimon
- The Baruch Ivcher Institute for Brain, Cognition and Technology, Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, Reichman University, Herzliya, Israel
- The Ruth & Meir Rosental Brain Imaging (MRI) Center, Reichman University, Herzliya, Israel
| | - Yulia Golland
- Sagol Center for Brain and Mind, Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, Reichman University, Herzliya, Israel
| | - Noa Zeharia
- The Baruch Ivcher Institute for Brain, Cognition and Technology, Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, Reichman University, Herzliya, Israel
| | - Amir Amedi
- The Baruch Ivcher Institute for Brain, Cognition and Technology, Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, Reichman University, Herzliya, Israel
- The Ruth & Meir Rosental Brain Imaging (MRI) Center, Reichman University, Herzliya, Israel
| | - Nava Levit-Binnun
- Sagol Center for Brain and Mind, Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, Reichman University, Herzliya, Israel
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13
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Frost-Karlsson M, Capusan AJ, Perini I, Olausson H, Zetterqvist M, Gustafsson PA, Boehme R. Neural processing of self-touch and other-touch in anorexia nervosa and autism spectrum condition. Neuroimage Clin 2022; 36:103264. [PMID: 36451367 PMCID: PMC9668667 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2022.103264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The tactile sense plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of a functional bodily self. The ability to differentiate between self- and nonself-generated touch contributes to the perception of the bodies' boundaries and more generally to self-other-distinction, both of which are thought be altered in anorexia nervosa (AN) and autism spectrum condition (AS). While it has been suggested that AN and AS are characterized by overlapping symptomatology, they might differ regarding body perception and self-other-distinction. METHODS Participants with a diagnosis of AN (n = 25), AS (n = 29), and a comparison group without diagnoses (n = 57) performed a self-other-touch task during functional brain imaging. In the experimental conditions, they stroked their own arm or were stroked on the arm by an experimenter. RESULTS As shown previously, the CG group showed lower activation or deactivation in response to self-touch compared to social touch from someone else. A main group effect was found in areas including somatosensory cortex, frontal and temporal gyri, insula, and subcortical regions. This was driven by increased activations in participants with AN, while participants in the AS group showed mostly comparable activations to the comparison group. CONCLUSIONS AN diagnosis was associated with an increased neural activity in response to both self-touch and social touch. Failure to attenuate self-touch might relate to altered predictions regarding the own body and reduced perception of bodily boundaries. Participants with an AS diagnosis were mostly comparable to the comparison group, potentially indicating unaltered tactile self-other-distinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan Frost-Karlsson
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Linköping University, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, 58185 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Andrea Johansson Capusan
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Linköping University, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, 58185 Linköping, Sweden,Department of Psychiatry in Linköping and Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, 58185 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Irene Perini
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Linköping University, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, 58185 Linköping, Sweden,Center for Medical Imaging and Visualization, Linköping University, 58185 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Håkan Olausson
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Linköping University, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, 58185 Linköping, Sweden,Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Linköping University Hospital, 58185 Linköping, Sweden,Center for Medical Imaging and Visualization, Linköping University, 58185 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Maria Zetterqvist
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Linköping University, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, 58185 Linköping, Sweden,Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry in Linköping and Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, 58185 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Per A. Gustafsson
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Linköping University, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, 58185 Linköping, Sweden,Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry in Linköping and Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, 58185 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Rebecca Boehme
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Linköping University, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, 58185 Linköping, Sweden,Center for Medical Imaging and Visualization, Linköping University, 58185 Linköping, Sweden,Corresponding author at: Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, The Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, S-581 83 Linköping, Sweden.
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14
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Manzone DM, Tremblay L, Chua R. Tactile facilitation during actual and mere expectation of object reception. Sci Rep 2022; 12:17514. [PMID: 36266418 PMCID: PMC9585022 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-22133-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
During reaching and grasping movements tactile processing is typically suppressed. However, during a reception or catching task, the object can still be acquired but without suppressive processes related to movement execution. Rather, tactile information may be facilitated as the object approaches in anticipation of object contact and the utilization of tactile feedback. Therefore, the current study investigated tactile processing during a reception task. Participants sat with their upper limb still as an object travelled to and contacted their fingers. At different points along the object's trajectory and prior to contact, participants were asked to detect tactile stimuli delivered to their index finger. To understand if the expectation of object contact contributed to any modulation in tactile processing, the object stopped prematurely on 20% of trials. Compared to a pre-object movement baseline, relative perceptual thresholds were decreased throughout the object's trajectory, and even when the object stopped prematurely. Further, there was no evidence for modulation when the stimulus was presented shortly before object contact. The former results suggest that tactile processing is facilitated as an object approaches an individual's hand. As well, we purport that the expectation of tactile feedback drives this modulation. Finally, the latter results suggest that peripheral masking may have reduced/abolished any facilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian M. Manzone
- grid.17063.330000 0001 2157 2938Perceptual Motor Behaviour Laboratory, Centre for Motor Control, Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education, University of Toronto, 55 Harbord Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2W6 Canada
| | - Luc Tremblay
- grid.17063.330000 0001 2157 2938Perceptual Motor Behaviour Laboratory, Centre for Motor Control, Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education, University of Toronto, 55 Harbord Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2W6 Canada
| | - Romeo Chua
- grid.17091.3e0000 0001 2288 9830School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC Canada
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15
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Lubinus C, Einhäuser W, Schiller F, Kircher T, Straube B, van Kemenade BM. Action-based predictions affect visual perception, neural processing, and pupil size, regardless of temporal predictability. Neuroimage 2022; 263:119601. [PMID: 36064139 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensory consequences of one's own action are often perceived as less intense, and lead to reduced neural responses, compared to externally generated stimuli. Presumably, such sensory attenuation is due to predictive mechanisms based on the motor command (efference copy). However, sensory attenuation has also been observed outside the context of voluntary action, namely when stimuli are temporally predictable. Here, we aimed at disentangling the effects of motor and temporal predictability-based mechanisms on the attenuation of sensory action consequences. During fMRI data acquisition, participants (N = 25) judged which of two visual stimuli was brighter. In predictable blocks, the stimuli appeared temporally aligned with their button press (active) or aligned with an automatically generated cue (passive). In unpredictable blocks, stimuli were presented with a variable delay after button press/cue, respectively. Eye tracking was performed to investigate pupil-size changes and to ensure proper fixation. Self-generated stimuli were perceived as darker and led to less neural activation in visual areas than their passive counterparts, indicating sensory attenuation for self-generated stimuli independent of temporal predictability. Pupil size was larger during self-generated stimuli, which correlated negatively with the blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) response: the larger the pupil, the smaller the BOLD amplitude in visual areas. Our results suggest that sensory attenuation in visual cortex is driven by action-based predictive mechanisms rather than by temporal predictability. This effect may be related to changes in pupil diameter. Altogether, these results emphasize the role of the efference copy in the processing of sensory action consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Lubinus
- Department of Neuroscience, Max-Planck-Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Grüneburgweg 14, Frankfurt am Main D-60322, Germany; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy and Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg, Rudolf-Bultmann-Str. 8, Marburg D-35039, Germany.
| | - Wolfgang Einhäuser
- Institute of Physics, Physics of Cognition Group, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz D-09107, Germany
| | - Florian Schiller
- Department of Psychology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Otto-Behaghel-Str. 10, Giessen D-35394, Germany
| | - Tilo Kircher
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy and Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg, Rudolf-Bultmann-Str. 8, Marburg D-35039, Germany
| | - Benjamin Straube
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy and Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg, Rudolf-Bultmann-Str. 8, Marburg D-35039, Germany
| | - Bianca M van Kemenade
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy and Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg, Rudolf-Bultmann-Str. 8, Marburg D-35039, Germany; Center for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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16
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Paraskevoudi N, SanMiguel I. Sensory suppression and increased neuromodulation during actions disrupt memory encoding of unpredictable self-initiated stimuli. Psychophysiology 2022; 60:e14156. [PMID: 35918912 PMCID: PMC10078310 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Actions modulate sensory processing by attenuating responses to self- compared to externally generated inputs, which is traditionally attributed to stimulus-specific motor predictions. Yet, suppression has been also found for stimuli merely coinciding with actions, pointing to unspecific processes that may be driven by neuromodulatory systems. Meanwhile, the differential processing for self-generated stimuli raises the possibility of producing effects also on memory for these stimuli; however, evidence remains mixed as to the direction of the effects. Here, we assessed the effects of actions on sensory processing and memory encoding of concomitant, but unpredictable sounds, using a combination of self-generation and memory recognition task concurrently with EEG and pupil recordings. At encoding, subjects performed button presses that half of the time generated a sound (motor-auditory; MA) and listened to passively presented sounds (auditory-only; A). At retrieval, two sounds were presented and participants had to respond which one was present before. We measured memory bias and memory performance by having sequences where either both or only one of the test sounds were presented at encoding, respectively. Results showed worse memory performance - but no differences in memory bias -, attenuated responses, and larger pupil diameter for MA compared to A sounds. Critically, the larger the sensory attenuation and pupil diameter, the worse the memory performance for MA sounds. Nevertheless, sensory attenuation did not correlate with pupil dilation. Collectively, our findings suggest that sensory attenuation and neuromodulatory processes coexist during actions, and both relate to disrupted memory for concurrent, albeit unpredictable sounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Paraskevoudi
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Brainlab-Cognitive Neuroscience Research Group, Departament de Psicologia Clinica i Psicobiologia, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Iria SanMiguel
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Brainlab-Cognitive Neuroscience Research Group, Departament de Psicologia Clinica i Psicobiologia, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain
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17
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Asimakidou E, Job X, Kilteni K. The positive dimension of schizotypy is associated with a reduced attenuation and precision of self-generated touch. SCHIZOPHRENIA (HEIDELBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 8:57. [PMID: 35854009 PMCID: PMC9261081 DOI: 10.1038/s41537-022-00264-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The brain predicts the sensory consequences of our movements and uses these predictions to attenuate the perception of self-generated sensations. Accordingly, self-generated touch feels weaker than an externally generated touch of identical intensity. In schizophrenia, this somatosensory attenuation is substantially reduced, suggesting that patients with positive symptoms fail to accurately predict and process self-generated touch. If an impaired prediction underlies the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, then a similar impairment should exist in healthy nonclinical individuals with high positive schizotypal traits. One hundred healthy participants (53 female), assessed for schizotypal traits, underwent a well-established psychophysics force discrimination task to quantify how they perceived self-generated and externally generated touch. The perceived intensity of tactile stimuli delivered to their left index finger (magnitude) and the ability to discriminate the stimuli (precision) was measured. We observed that higher positive schizotypal traits were associated with reduced somatosensory attenuation and poorer somatosensory precision of self-generated touch, both when treating schizotypy as a continuous or categorical variable. These effects were specific to positive schizotypy and were not observed for the negative or disorganized dimensions of schizotypy. The results suggest that positive schizotypal traits are associated with a reduced ability to predict and process self-generated touch. Given that the positive dimension of schizotypy represents the analogue of positive psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia, deficits in processing self-generated tactile information could indicate increased liability to schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evridiki Asimakidou
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solnavägen 9, 17165, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Xavier Job
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solnavägen 9, 17165, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Konstantina Kilteni
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solnavägen 9, 17165, Stockholm, Sweden.
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18
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Kilteni K, Ehrsson HH. Predictive attenuation of touch and tactile gating are distinct perceptual phenomena. iScience 2022; 25:104077. [PMID: 35372807 PMCID: PMC8968059 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, research on somatosensory perception has led to two important observations. First, self-generated touches that are predicted by voluntary movements become attenuated compared with externally generated touches of the same intensity (attenuation). Second, externally generated touches feel weaker and are more difficult to detect during movement than at rest (gating). At present, researchers often consider gating and attenuation the same suppression process; however, this assumption is unwarranted because, despite more than 40 years of research, no study has combined them in a single paradigm. We quantified how people perceive self-generated and externally generated touches during movement and rest. We show that whereas voluntary movement gates the precision of both self-generated and externally generated touch, the amplitude of self-generated touch is robustly attenuated compared with externally generated touch. Furthermore, attenuation and gating do not interact and are not correlated, and we conclude that they represent distinct perceptual phenomena. We tested the perception of self-generated and external touch during movement and rest The intensity of self-generated touch is reduced during movement and rest (attenuation) The precision of self-generated and external touch is reduced during movement (gating) Attenuation and gating neither interact nor correlate, and are distinct phenomena
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantina Kilteni
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solnavägen 9, 17165 Stockholm, Sweden
- Corresponding author
| | - H. Henrik Ehrsson
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solnavägen 9, 17165 Stockholm, Sweden
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19
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20
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21
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22
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Tsay JS, Kim H, Haith AM, Ivry RB. Understanding implicit sensorimotor adaptation as a process of proprioceptive re-alignment. eLife 2022; 11:76639. [PMID: 35969491 PMCID: PMC9377801 DOI: 10.7554/elife.76639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple learning processes contribute to successful goal-directed actions in the face of changing physiological states, biomechanical constraints, and environmental contexts. Amongst these processes, implicit sensorimotor adaptation is of primary importance, ensuring that movements remain well-calibrated and accurate. A large body of work on reaching movements has emphasized how adaptation centers on an iterative process designed to minimize visual errors. The role of proprioception has been largely neglected, thought to play a passive role in which proprioception is affected by the visual error but does not directly contribute to adaptation. Here, we present an alternative to this visuo-centric framework, outlining a model in which implicit adaptation acts to minimize a proprioceptive error, the distance between the perceived hand position and its intended goal. This proprioceptive re-alignment model (PReMo) is consistent with many phenomena that have previously been interpreted in terms of learning from visual errors, and offers a parsimonious account of numerous unexplained phenomena. Cognizant that the evidence for PReMo rests on correlational studies, we highlight core predictions to be tested in future experiments, as well as note potential challenges for a proprioceptive-based perspective on implicit adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan S Tsay
- Department of Psychology, University of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States,Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
| | - Hyosub Kim
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of DelawareNewarkUnited States,Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of DelawareNewarkUnited States
| | - Adrian M Haith
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Richard B Ivry
- Department of Psychology, University of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States,Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
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23
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Parthasharathy M, Mantini D, Orban de Xivry JJ. Increased upper-limb sensory attenuation with age. J Neurophysiol 2021; 127:474-492. [PMID: 34936521 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00558.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The pressure of our own finger on the arm feels differently than the same pressure exerted by an external agent: the latter involves just touch, whereas the former involves a combination of touch and predictive output from the internal model of the body. This internal model predicts the movement of our own finger and hence the intensity of the sensation of the finger press is decreased. A decrease in intensity of the self-produced stimulus is called sensory attenuation. It has been reported that, due to decreased proprioception with age and an increased reliance on the prediction of the internal model, sensory attenuation is increased in older adults. In this study, we used a force-matching paradigm to test if sensory attenuation is also present over the arm and if aging increases sensory attenuation. We demonstrated that, while both young and older adults overestimate a self-produced force, older adults overestimate it even more showing an increased sensory attenuation. In addition, we also found that both younger and older adults self-produce higher forces when activating the homologous muscles of the upper limb. While this is traditionally viewed as evidence for an increased reliance on internal model function in older adults because of decreased proprioception, proprioception appeared unimpaired in our older participants. This begs the question of whether an age-related decrease in proprioception is really responsible for the increased sensory attenuation observed in older people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manasa Parthasharathy
- Motor Control and Neuroplasticity Research group, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dante Mantini
- Motor Control and Neuroplasticity Research group, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Brain Imaging and Neural Dynamics Research Group, IRCCS San Camillo Hospital, Venice, Italy
| | - Jean-Jacques Orban de Xivry
- Motor Control and Neuroplasticity Research group, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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24
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Vallortigara G. The Efference Copy Signal as a Key Mechanism for Consciousness. Front Syst Neurosci 2021; 15:765646. [PMID: 34899201 PMCID: PMC8662721 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2021.765646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals need to distinguish sensory input caused by their own movement from sensory input which is due to stimuli in the outside world. This can be done by an efference copy mechanism, a carbon copy of the movement-command that is routed to sensory structures. Here I tried to link the mechanism of the efference copy with the idea of the philosopher Thomas Reid that the senses would have a double province, to make us feel, and to make us perceive, and that, as argued by psychologist Nicholas Humphrey, the former would identify with the signals from bodily sense organs with an internalized evaluative response, i.e., with phenomenal consciousness. I discussed a possible departure from the classical implementation of the efference copy mechanism that can effectively provide the senses with such a double province, and possibly allow us some progress in understanding the nature of consciousness.
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25
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Kilteni K, Engeler P, Boberg I, Maurex L, Ehrsson HH. No evidence for somatosensory attenuation during action observation of self-touch. Eur J Neurosci 2021; 54:6422-6444. [PMID: 34463971 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of mirror neurons in the macaque brain in the 1990s triggered investigations on putative human mirror neurons and their potential functionality. The leading proposed function has been action understanding: Accordingly, we understand the actions of others by 'simulating' them in our own motor system through a direct matching of the visual information to our own motor programmes. Furthermore, it has been proposed that this simulation involves the prediction of the sensory consequences of the observed action, similar to the prediction of the sensory consequences of our executed actions. Here, we tested this proposal by quantifying somatosensory attenuation behaviourally during action observation. Somatosensory attenuation manifests during voluntary action and refers to the perception of self-generated touches as less intense than identical externally generated touches because the self-generated touches are predicted from the motor command. Therefore, we reasoned that if an observer simulates the observed action and, thus, he/she predicts its somatosensory consequences, then he/she should attenuate tactile stimuli simultaneously delivered to his/her corresponding body part. In three separate experiments, we found a systematic attenuation of touches during executed self-touch actions, but we found no evidence for attenuation when such actions were observed. Failure to observe somatosensory attenuation during observation of self-touch is not compatible with the hypothesis that the putative human mirror neuron system automatically predicts the sensory consequences of the observed action. In contrast, our findings emphasize a sharp distinction between the motor representations of self and others.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrick Engeler
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ida Boberg
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Linnea Maurex
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - H Henrik Ehrsson
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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26
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Paraskevoudi N, SanMiguel I. Self-generation and sound intensity interactively modulate perceptual bias, but not perceptual sensitivity. Sci Rep 2021; 11:17103. [PMID: 34429453 PMCID: PMC8385100 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-96346-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to distinguish self-generated stimuli from those caused by external sources is critical for all behaving organisms. Although many studies point to a sensory attenuation of self-generated stimuli, recent evidence suggests that motor actions can result in either attenuated or enhanced perceptual processing depending on the environmental context (i.e., stimulus intensity). The present study employed 2-AFC sound detection and loudness discrimination tasks to test whether sound source (self- or externally-generated) and stimulus intensity (supra- or near-threshold) interactively modulate detection ability and loudness perception. Self-generation did not affect detection and discrimination sensitivity (i.e., detection thresholds and Just Noticeable Difference, respectively). However, in the discrimination task, we observed a significant interaction between self-generation and intensity on perceptual bias (i.e. Point of Subjective Equality). Supra-threshold self-generated sounds were perceived softer than externally-generated ones, while at near-threshold intensities self-generated sounds were perceived louder than externally-generated ones. Our findings provide empirical support to recent theories on how predictions and signal intensity modulate perceptual processing, pointing to interactive effects of intensity and self-generation that seem to be driven by a biased estimate of perceived loudness, rather by changes in detection and discrimination sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Paraskevoudi
- Brainlab-Cognitive Neuroscience Research Group, Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, University of Barcelona, P. Vall d'Hebron 171, 08035, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Iria SanMiguel
- Brainlab-Cognitive Neuroscience Research Group, Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, University of Barcelona, P. Vall d'Hebron 171, 08035, Barcelona, Spain. .,Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain. .,Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain.
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27
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Vallortigara G. The rose and the fly. A conjecture on the origin of consciousness. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2021; 564:170-174. [PMID: 33213842 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The Scottish philosopher Thomas Reid and more recently the evolutionary psychologist Nicholas Humphrey argued for a basic distinction between sensation (what is happening to me) and perception (what is happening out there) with the former, but not the latter, being associated with consciousness. Conscious experiences in this view would emerge from changes in the state of the body, i.e. as bodily actions, and would maintain such a primal characteristic nowadays. I argue that the evolutionary reason for the sensation/perception distinction can be traced back to organisms' movement, and to the consequent need to tell apart two varieties of an otherwise identical local stimulation: namely, either as the outcome of external stimuli passively impinging on body surface or as the outcome of an organism movement giving rise to encountering with external stimuli. The Erich von Holst Reafferenzprinzip effectively modelled such a distinction by postulating that an efference copy is generated in association with the motor command thus nullifying any sensory signal that arises as a by-product of an organism movement. I argue that if sensation originally equates to a bodily action (or its internalized representation), then it could be that an efference copy of local (or internalized) bodily action is generated under stimulation and compared to that associated with active motor command. This way the result would be leaving sensation (what is happening to me) or nullifying it and leaving only perception (what is happening out there) depending on whether or not a motor command has occurred. Implications of this hypothesis for the presence of consciousness in animals or other organisms such as plants are briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgio Vallortigara
- Centre for Mind-Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Italy; Centre for Mind-Brain Sciences, CIMeC, University of Trento, Piazza Manifattura 1, 38068, Rovereto (TN), Italy.
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28
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Predicting pain: differential pain thresholds during self-induced, externally induced, and imagined self-induced pressure pain. Pain 2021; 162:1539-1544. [PMID: 33252451 PMCID: PMC8054540 DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text. Imagining pressure pain to be self-induced led to increased pressure pain thresholds. Such sensory attenuation of pain was also seen in actual self-induced pressure. During self-induced pain, a copy of the motor information from the body's own movement may help predict the painful sensation and cause downregulation of pain. This phenomenon, called sensory attenuation, enables the distinction between self-produced stimuli vs stimuli produced by others. Sensory attenuation has been shown to occur also during imagined self-produced movements, but this has not been investigated for painful sensations. In the current study, the pressure pain thresholds of 40 healthy participants aged 18 to 35 years were assessed when pain was induced by the experimenter (other), by themselves (self), or by the experimenter while imagining the pressure to be self-induced (imagery). The pressure pain was induced on the participants left lower thigh (quadriceps femoris) using a handheld algometer. Significant differences were found between all conditions: other and self (P < 0.001), other and imagery (P < 0.001), and self and imagery (P = 0.004). The mean pressure pain threshold for other was 521.49 kPa (SE = 38.48), for self 729.57 kPa (SE = 32.32), and for imagery 618.88 kPa (SE = 26.67). Thus, sensory attenuation did occur both in the self condition and the imagery condition. The results of this study may have clinical relevance for understanding the mechanisms involved in the elevated pain thresholds seen in patients with self-injury behavior and the low pain thresholds seen in patients with chronic pain conditions. Imagery of sensory attenuation might also be used to alleviate the pain experience for patients undergoing procedural pain.
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Roel Lesur M, Weijs ML, Nguyen TD, Lenggenhager B. Staying in touch with our bodies: Stronger sense of ownership during self- compared to other touch despite temporal mismatches. Cognition 2021; 214:104769. [PMID: 34015545 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Self-touch is considered important for bodily self-consciousness and self-other distinction and has been reported to improve clinical symptoms of disembodiment. To investigate the link between self-touch and disembodiment in healthy participants, we studied the effect of self-touch versus touch produced by another person (other-touch) on experimentally induced disembodiment. In a mixed reality paradigm, across two experiments, participants could see their own body and surroundings with a controllable visual delay and either stroked their own hand with a paintbrush or were stroked with it by the experimenter. Experiment 1 first assessed the sensitivity to temporal multimodal mismatches and delay-induced changes in the sense of body ownership in three conditions, namely self-touch, other-touch and hidden-self-touch (visually occluding the touching hand). In a second block, we compared phenomenological and physiological (threat response) measures of disembodiment between the self-touch and other-touch conditions. Experiment 2 roughly replicated the first block of Experiment 1 but included a condition in which participants performed the self-touch gesture without touching their hand. Such experiment attempted to control for the potential role of efferent signals. Our results show that increasing visual delay generally enhances the feeling of disembodiment, yet the decrease of body ownership is less pronounced during self-touch. For sensitivity to delay between conditions, however, diverging findings are discussed. This study provides evidence for the importance of self-touch in sustaining a healthy sense of body in the context of disembodiment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marte Roel Lesur
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | | | - Thi Dao Nguyen
- Newborn Research, Department of Neonatology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Kearney J, Brittain JS. Sensory Attenuation in Sport and Rehabilitation: Perspective from Research in Parkinson's Disease. Brain Sci 2021; 11:580. [PMID: 33946218 PMCID: PMC8145846 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11050580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
People with Parkinson's disease (PD) experience motor symptoms that are affected by sensory information in the environment. Sensory attenuation describes the modulation of sensory input caused by motor intent. This appears to be altered in PD and may index important sensorimotor processes underpinning PD symptoms. We review recent findings investigating sensory attenuation and reconcile seemingly disparate results with an emphasis on task-relevance in the modulation of sensory input. Sensory attenuation paradigms, across different sensory modalities, capture how two identical stimuli can elicit markedly different perceptual experiences depending on our predictions of the event, but also the context in which the event occurs. In particular, it appears as though contextual information may be used to suppress or facilitate a response to a stimulus on the basis of task-relevance. We support this viewpoint by considering the role of the basal ganglia in task-relevant sensory filtering and the use of contextual signals in complex environments to shape action and perception. This perspective highlights the dual effect of basal ganglia dysfunction in PD, whereby a reduced capacity to filter task-relevant signals harms the ability to integrate contextual cues, just when such cues are required to effectively navigate and interact with our environment. Finally, we suggest how this framework might be used to establish principles for effective rehabilitation in the treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Kearney
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - John-Stuart Brittain
- Centre for Human Brain Health, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK;
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Knoetsch F, Zimmermann E. The spatial specificity of sensory attenuation for self-touch. Conscious Cogn 2021; 92:103135. [PMID: 33934049 PMCID: PMC8193814 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2021.103135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Self-touch is sensed less intense as touch produced by another person. According to the standard explanation, if predicted and actual sensations match, the intensity of the touch will be reduced. Here, we asked whether sensory attenuation is spatially specific. To this end, participants laid their left hand under a metal arc on which a force sensor was mounted. Pressing the sensor caused one of two motors to rotate a lever that either touched the index or the ring finger. We took care that no cues would reveal in advance which of the motors would move in order to leave participants uninformed about the finger that will be stimulated. Any reduction in felt intensity of the touch could therefore be induced only by the efference copy of the touching movement. We found strong spatial specificity of sensory attenuation of self-touch, selecting between two fingers of the same hand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Knoetsch
- Institute for Experimental Psychology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Eckart Zimmermann
- Institute for Experimental Psychology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
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Schmitter CV, Steinsträter O, Kircher T, van Kemenade BM, Straube B. Commonalities and differences in predictive neural processing of discrete vs continuous action feedback. Neuroimage 2021; 229:117745. [PMID: 33454410 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensory action consequences are highly predictable and thus engage less neural resources compared to externally generated sensory events. While this has frequently been observed to lead to attenuated perceptual sensitivity and suppression of activity in sensory cortices, some studies conversely reported enhanced perceptual sensitivity for action consequences. These divergent findings might be explained by the type of action feedback, i.e., discrete outcomes vs. continuous feedback. Therefore, in the present study we investigated the impact of discrete and continuous action feedback on perceptual and neural processing during action feedback monitoring. During fMRI data acquisition, participants detected temporal delays (0-417 ms) between actively or passively generated wrist movements and visual feedback that was either continuously provided during the movement or that appeared as a discrete outcome. Both feedback types resulted in (1) a neural suppression effect (active<passive) in a largely shared network including bilateral visual and somatosensory cortices, cerebellum and temporoparietal areas. Yet, compared to discrete outcomes, (2) processing continuous feedback led to stronger suppression in right superior temporal gyrus (STG), Heschl´s gyrus, and insula suggesting specific suppression of features linked to continuous feedback. Furthermore, (3) BOLD suppression in visual cortex for discrete outcomes was specifically related to perceptual enhancement. Together, these findings indicate that neural representations of discrete and continuous action feedback are similarly suppressed but might depend on different predictive mechanisms, where reduced activation in visual cortex reflects facilitation specifically for discrete outcomes, and predictive processing in STG, Heschl´s gyrus, and insula is particularly relevant for continuous feedback.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina V Schmitter
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Marburg, Rudolf-Bultmann-Strasse 8, 35039 Marburg, Germany; Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg and Justus Liebig University Giessen, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany.
| | - Olaf Steinsträter
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Marburg, Rudolf-Bultmann-Strasse 8, 35039 Marburg, Germany; Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg and Justus Liebig University Giessen, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany; Core Facility Brain Imaging, University of Marburg, Rudolf-Bultmann-Strasse 8, 35039 Marburg, Germany.
| | - Tilo Kircher
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Marburg, Rudolf-Bultmann-Strasse 8, 35039 Marburg, Germany; Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg and Justus Liebig University Giessen, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany.
| | - Bianca M van Kemenade
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Marburg, Rudolf-Bultmann-Strasse 8, 35039 Marburg, Germany; Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg and Justus Liebig University Giessen, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany.
| | - Benjamin Straube
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Marburg, Rudolf-Bultmann-Strasse 8, 35039 Marburg, Germany; Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg and Justus Liebig University Giessen, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany.
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Pyasik M, Ronga I, Burin D, Salatino A, Sarasso P, Garbarini F, Ricci R, Pia L. I'm a believer: Illusory self-generated touch elicits sensory attenuation and somatosensory evoked potentials similar to the real self-touch. Neuroimage 2021; 229:117727. [PMID: 33434613 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Sensory attenuation (i.e., the phenomenon whereby self-produced sensations are perceived as less intense compared to externally occurring ones) is among the neurocognitive processes that help distinguishing ourselves from others. It is thought to be rooted in the motor system (e.g., related to motor intention and prediction), while the role of body awareness, which necessarily accompanies any voluntary movement, in this phenomenon is largely unknown. To fill this gap, here we compared the perceived intensity, somatosensory evoked potentials, and alpha-band desynchronization for self-generated, other-generated, and embodied-fake-hand-generated somatosensory stimuli. We showed that sensory attenuation triggered by the own hand and by the embodied fake hand had the same behavioral and neurophysiological signatures (reduced subjective intensity, reduced of N140 and P200 SEP components and post-stimulus alpha-band desynchronization). Therefore, signals subserving body ownership influenced attenuation of somatosensory stimuli, possibly in a postdictive manner. This indicates that body ownership is crucial for distinguishing the source of the perceived sensations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pyasik
- SAMBA (SpAtial, Motor and Bodily Awareness) Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, 10123 Turin, Italy; NPSY-Lab.VR, Department of Human Sciences, University of Verona, 37129 Verona, Italy
| | - Irene Ronga
- MANIBUS - Movement ANd body In Behavioral and physiological neUroScience research group, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, 10123 Turin, Italy
| | - Dalila Burin
- IDAC - Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer, SARC - Smart-Aging Research Center, Kawashima Laboratory, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Adriana Salatino
- SAMBA (SpAtial, Motor and Bodily Awareness) Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, 10123 Turin, Italy
| | - Pietro Sarasso
- SAMBA (SpAtial, Motor and Bodily Awareness) Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, 10123 Turin, Italy
| | - Francesca Garbarini
- MANIBUS - Movement ANd body In Behavioral and physiological neUroScience research group, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, 10123 Turin, Italy
| | - Raffaella Ricci
- SAMBA (SpAtial, Motor and Bodily Awareness) Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, 10123 Turin, Italy; NIT (Neuroscience Institute of Turin), 10123 Turin, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Pia
- SAMBA (SpAtial, Motor and Bodily Awareness) Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, 10123 Turin, Italy; NIT (Neuroscience Institute of Turin), 10123 Turin, Italy.
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Fritsch A, Lenggenhager B, Bekrater-Bodmann R. Prosthesis embodiment and attenuation of prosthetic touch in upper limb amputees - A proof-of-concept study. Conscious Cogn 2020; 88:103073. [PMID: 33360821 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2020.103073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Sensory attenuation of self-touch, that is, the perceptual reduction of self-generated tactile stimuli, is considered a neurocognitive basis for self-other distinction. However, whether this effect can also be found in upper limb amputees using a prosthesis is unknown. Thirteen participants were asked to touch their foot sole with a) their intact hand (self-touch), b) their prosthesis (prosthesis-touch), or c) let it be touched by another person (other-touch). Intensity of touch was assessed with a questionnaire. In addition, prosthesis embodiment was assessed in nine participants. Self-touch as well as prosthesis-touch was characterized by significant perceptual attenuation compared to other-touch, while self- and prosthesis-touch did not differ. The more embodied the prosthesis was, the more similar was its elicited touch perception to actual self-touch. These findings - although preliminary - suggest that perceptually embodied prostheses can be represented as an actual limb by the users' sensorimotor system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia Fritsch
- Department of Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | | | - Robin Bekrater-Bodmann
- Department of Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany.
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Fossataro C, Burin D, Ronga I, Galigani M, Rossi Sebastiano A, Pia L, Garbarini F. Agent-dependent modulation of corticospinal excitability during painful transcutaneous electrical stimulation. Neuroimage 2020; 217:116897. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
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