Investigation of electrospray ionization and electrostatic focusing devices using a three-dimensional electrospray current density profiler

Moderate Signal Enhancement in Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry by Focusing Electrospray Plume with a Dielectric Layer around the Mass Spectrometer's Orifice

Electrospray ionization (ESI) is among the commonly used atmospheric pressure ionization techniques in mass spectrometry (MS). One of the drawbacks of ESI is the formation of divergent plumes composed of polydisperse microdroplets, which lead to low transmission efficiency. Here, we propose a new method to potentially improve the transmission efficiency of ESI, which does not require additional electrical components and complex interface modification. A dielectric plate-made of ceramic-was used in place of a regular metallic sampling cone. Due to the charge accumulation on the dielectric surface, the dielectric layer around the MS orifice distorts the electric field, focusing the charged electrospray cloud towards the MS inlet. The concept was first verified using charge measurement on the dielectric material surface and computational simulation; then, online experiments were carried out to demonstrate the potential of this method in MS applications. In the online experiment, signal enhancements were observed for dielectric plates with different geometries, distances of the electrospray needle axis from the MS inlet, and various compounds. For example, in the case of acetaminophen (15 μM), the signal enhancement was up to 1.82 times (plate B) using the default distance of the electrospray needle axis from the MS inlet (d = 1.5 mm) and 12.18 times (plate C) using a longer distance (d = 7 mm).

Characterization of Spray Modes and Factors Affecting the Ionization Efficiency of Paper Spray Ionization

In this study, we systematically evaluated the factors affecting the ionization efficiency of paper spray ionization (PSI), such as electric field, solvent supply rate, and paper thickness and hydrophobicity. The observed paper spray plume was classified into three modes: single cone-jet, multi-jet, and rim-jet modes. With the increase in the spraying voltage, the spray plume appeared in order of single cone-jet, multi-jet, and rim-jet modes. The rim-jet mode exhibited the lowest standard deviation and high ionization efficiency among the three spray modes. The main parameter determining the spray mode was the charge density of the droplets generated by paper spray, which depends on the electric field and solvent supply rate. A thicker paper reduced the electric repulsion between the jets and lowered the threshold voltage to reach the rim-jet mode. Lowering the solvent supply rate caused mode transitions from the single cone-jet to the rim-jet, possibly due to the increased droplet charge density. The hydrophobic modification on a paper substrate led to a different ionization mechanism or electrostatic spray ionization at low applied voltages.

Lifetime Considerations for Electrospray Thrusters

Ionic liquid electrospray thrusters are capable of producing microNewton precision thrust at a high thrust–power ratio but have yet to demonstrate lifetimes that are suitable for most missions. Accumulation of propellant on the extractor and accelerator grids is thought to be the most significant life-limiting mechanism. In this study, we developed a life model to examine the effects of design features, operating conditions, and emission properties on the porous accelerator grid saturation time of a thruster operating in droplet emission mode. Characterizing a range of geometries and operating conditions revealed that modifying grid aperture radius and grid spacing by 3–7% can significantly improve thruster lifetime by 200–400%, though a need for explicit mass flux measurement was highlighted. Tolerance analysis showed that misalignment can result in 20–50% lifetime reduction. In addition, examining the impact of electron backstreaming showed that increasing aperture radius produces a significant increase in backstreaming current compared to changing grid spacing. A study of accelerator grid bias voltages revealed that applying a reasonably strong accelerator grid potential (in the order of a kV) can minimize backstreaming current to negligible levels for a range of geometries.

Electrospray ionization source with a rear extractor

A new electrospray source design is introduced by having an extractor electrode placed at 1 to 2 mm behind the emitter tip. The extractor was integrated into the sprayer body as a single device. An insulating tube was used to isolate the emitter from the extractor and to deliver the sheath gas for the electrospray. The electric field strength at the emitter was primarily determined by the relative position and the potential between the needle and the extractor; therefore, the spraying condition was insusceptible to the change of sprayer position or orientation with respect to the ion sampling inlet. Such design allowed the use of much lower operating voltage and facilitated the optimization of sprayer position by keeping the electric field parameter constant. Using an emitter capillary of 150 and 310 μm in inner and outer diameters, strong ion signal could still be acquired with 2-kV emitter potential even if the distance between the emitter and ion inlet was extended to >70 mm. Charge reduction of protein ions using 2 extractor-based electrosprays of opposite emitter polarities was also demonstrated.

A novel planar ion funnel design for miniature ion optics

The novel planar ion funnel (PIF) design presented in this article emphasizes simple fabrication, assembly, and operation, making it amenable to extreme miniaturization. Simulations performed in SIMION 8.0 indicate that ion focusing can be achieved by using a gradient of electrostatic potentials on concentric metal rings in a plane. A prototype was fabricated on a 35 × 35 mm custom-designed printed circuit board (PCB) with a center hole for ions to pass through and a series of concentric circular metal rings of increasing diameter on the front side of the PCB. Metal vias on the PCB electrically connected each metal ring to a resistive potential divider that was soldered on the back of the PCB. The PIF was tested at 5.5 × 10(-6) Torr in a vacuum test setup that was equipped with a broad-beam ion source on the front and a micro channel plate (MCP) ion detector on the back of the PIF. The ion current recorded on the MCP anode during testing indicated a 23× increase in the ion transmission through the PIF when electric potentials were applied to the rings. These preliminary results demonstrate the functionality of a 2D ion funnel design with a much smaller footprint and simpler driving electronics than conventional 3D ion funnels. Future directions to improve the design and a possible micromachining approach to fabrication are discussed in the conclusions.

Design, simulation and evaluation of improved air amplifier incorporating an ion funnel for nano-ESI MS

An improved air amplifier design that takes advantage of the combined effects of aerodynamic and electrodynamic focusing was developed to couple a nanoelectrospray ionisation (nano-ESI) source and the heated mass spectrometer inlet to improve the sensitivity of a mass spectrometer. The new design comprises an electrodynamic ion funnel integrated into the main air pathway of the air amplifier to more effectively focus and transmit gas-phase ions from the nano-ESI source into the heated mass spectrometer inlet. Numerical computational fluid dynamics simulations were carried out using a commercial software package, ANSYS FLUENT, to provide more detailed information about the device's performance. The gas flow field as well as the electric field patterns and the Lagrangian ion motion were conveniently simulated using this single package and custom-written, user-defined functions. Experimental results show a nearly five-fold improvement in reserpine ion intensity with the air amplifier operated at a nitrogen gauge pressure of 40 kPa and no direct current (DC) or radiofrequency (RF) potentials applied to the ion funnel when the distance between the electrospray emitter and sampling inlet tube was 24 mm, as compared to direct sample infusion from the same distance without the air amplifier. More importantly, a nearly three-fold additional gain in ion intensity was measured when both DC and RF potentials were co-applied, resulting in more than a 13-fold overall ion intensity gain which could be attributed to the combined air amplifier aerodynamic and ion funnel electrodynamic focusing effect.

Field distribution in an electrospray ionization source determined by finite element method

Three-dimensional computer models of electrospray ionization sources were constructed in COMSOL Multiphysics to solve the static electric fields using finite element methods. The magnitude of the electric field strength for onset of electrospray and optimum signal was calculated under various conditions. The modification of the electric field distribution in the ion source by an atmospheric pressure ion lens was also investigated by plotting the equipotential surfaces, electric field lines and trajectories of charged droplets. Both the calculated and the experimental results demonstrate that the changes in the ion signal detected by the mass spectrometer are attributable to the focusing effect of the ion lens when appropriate voltages are applied on the sprayer and ion lens. The optimum signal was found by setting the sprayer voltage from 3000 to 5000 V while scanning the ion lens voltage. The calculated strengths of the electric field at the sprayer tip for optimum signals are similar although the applied voltages at the sprayer and ion lens are significantly different.

Ionization and transmission efficiency in an electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry interface

The ionization and transmission efficiencies of an electrospray ionization (ESI) interface were investigated to advance the understanding of how these factors affect mass spectrometry (MS) sensitivity. In addition, the effects of the ES emitter distance to the inlet, solution flow rate, and inlet temperature were characterized. Quantitative measurements of ES current loss throughout the ESI interface were accomplished by electrically isolating the front surface of the interface from the inner wall of the heated inlet capillary, enabling losses on the two surfaces to be distinguished. In addition, the ES current lost to the front surface of the ESI interface was spatially profiled with a linear array of 340-microm-diameter electrodes placed adjacent to the inlet capillary entrance. Current transmitted as gas-phase ions was differentiated from charged droplets and solvent clusters by measuring sensitivity with a single quadrupole mass spectrometer. The study revealed a large sampling efficiency into the inlet capillary (>90% at an emitter distance of 1 mm), a global rather than a local gas dynamic effect on the shape of the ES plume resulting from the gas flow conductance limit of the inlet capillary, a large (>80%) loss of analyte ions after transmission through the inlet arising from incomplete desolvation at a solution flow rate of 1.0 microL/min, and a decrease in analyte ions peak intensity at lower temperatures, despite a large increase in ES current transmission efficiency.

Polyaniline-coated nanoelectrospray emitters treated with hydrophobic polymers at the tip

In nanoelectrospray ionization (nanoESI) techniques, the hydrophilic character of the emitters generally produces large bases for the Taylor cones, thereby generating relatively large droplet sizes and consequently reduced sensitivity. In order to minimize this 'wetting' effect in nanoESI, a model hydrophobic polymer (an acrylic paint) was coated at the tip of commercial polyaniline (PANI)-coated emitters, and their performance was compared with that of unmodified PANI emitters using oxytocin and neuropeptide Y (NPY) solutions. In experiments with oxytocin, the hydrophobic emitter produced higher signal intensities (up to 3.6 times) as well as higher signal-to-noise ratios (33% increase) than those from the unmodified PANI emitter. In addition, the hydrophobic emitter showed reusability and a slightly wider linear dynamic range (10 nM to 50 microM, r2=0.9938) than that from the unmodified PANI emitter (10 nM to 10 microM, r2=0.9904). In the case of NPY, the hydrophobic emitter also enabled an approximately 350-fold overall increase in sensitivity than the unmodified PANI emitter (70 zmol vs. 25 amol). The enhanced performance of the hydrophobic emitter clearly indicates potential for further increases in nanoESI sensitivity using emitters with tailored hydrophobic overcoatings.

Improving mass spectrometer sensitivity using a high-pressure electrodynamic ion funnel interface

We report on a new electrodynamic ion funnel that operates at a pressure of 30 torr with no loss of ion transmission. The enhanced performance compared with previous ion funnel designs optimized for pressures of <5 torr was achieved by reducing the ion funnel capacitance and increasing the RF drive frequency (1.7 MHz) and amplitude (100-170 V peak-to-peak). No degradation of ion transmission was observed for pressures from 2 to 30 torr. The ability to operate at higher pressure enabled a new tandem ion funnel mass spectrometer interface design that can accommodate a greater gas load (e.g., from an ESI source). When combined with a multicapillary inlet, the interface provided more efficient introduction of ions, resulting in a significant enhancement in mass spectrometer sensitivity and detection limits.

New interface plate for microspray ionization mass spectrometry

A new interface plate was employed in microspray ionization mass spectrometry (microESI-MS) to improve ion transmission from the sprayer into the sampling nozzle of the mass spectrometer at atmospheric pressure. Using a time-of-flight mass spectrometer (TOFMS), a fivefold increase in ion intensity and a sevenfold reduction in method detection limit were observed. The interface plate attenuated the dependence of the ion intensity on the sprayer position. Even when the distance between the sprayer tip and sampling nozzle was 15.0 mm, ion signals were still stronger than when the sprayer tip was positioned 3.0 mm in front of the sampling nozzle with the original interface plate. This enhancement in the performance of microESI-MS was due to the improved shapes of the equipotential lines near the sprayer tip and the long desolvation distance between the sprayer and the sampling nozzle of the MS.