1
|
Ahearne MM, Pentzke-Lemus LL, Romano AM, Larsen ED, Watson AM, O'Fallon EA, Landolt GA. Disease progression, pathologic, and virologic findings of an equine influenza outbreak in rescue donkeys. J Vet Intern Med 2022; 36:2230-2237. [PMID: 36205917 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.16563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equine influenza virus is a common cause of respiratory disease in equids. Few reports describe clinical presentation and disease progression in donkeys. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES Describe the clinical and diagnostic findings, outcome, and pathologic lesions associated with influenza pneumonia in donkeys. ANIMALS Thirteen unvaccinated donkeys ranging from 1 week to 12 years of age and sharing clinical signs and exposure history. METHODS Retrospective case series. Medical records from June to July 2020 at the Colorado State Veterinary Teaching Hospital and collaborating referring veterinary practices were reviewed. The diagnosis was confirmed by molecular testing, virus isolation, and partial genetic and phylogenetic analysis of the virus. RESULTS Survival in donkeys <1 year old was 16.6% (1/6) whereas survival in animals >1 year of age was 85.7% (6/7). Hemagglutinin gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis confirmed a contemporary clade 1 Florida sublineage H3 virus as the causative agent. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE Clinical signs of equine influenza virus infection in donkeys are similar to those observed in horses. Prognosis for survival generally is good, but deaths have been observed especially in foals born to seronegative dams. This finding emphasizes the importance of prenatal vaccination protocols in all equids, including donkeys.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Megan M Ahearne
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Ligia L Pentzke-Lemus
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Ashley M Romano
- Department of of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Eileen D Larsen
- Department of of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Allison M Watson
- Department of of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Elsbeth A O'Fallon
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Gabriele A Landolt
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.,Department of of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Whitlock F, Murcia PR, Newton JR. A Review on Equine Influenza from a Human Influenza Perspective. Viruses 2022; 14:v14061312. [PMID: 35746783 PMCID: PMC9229935 DOI: 10.3390/v14061312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) have a main natural reservoir in wild birds. IAVs are highly contagious, continually evolve, and have a wide host range that includes various mammalian species including horses, pigs, and humans. Furthering our understanding of host-pathogen interactions and cross-species transmissions is therefore essential. This review focuses on what is known regarding equine influenza virus (EIV) virology, pathogenesis, immune responses, clinical aspects, epidemiology (including factors contributing to local, national, and international transmission), surveillance, and preventive measures such as vaccines. We compare EIV and human influenza viruses and discuss parallels that can be drawn between them. We highlight differences in evolutionary rates between EIV and human IAVs, their impact on antigenic drift, and vaccine strain updates. We also describe the approaches used for the control of equine influenza (EI), which originated from those used in the human field, including surveillance networks and virological analysis methods. Finally, as vaccination in both species remains the cornerstone of disease mitigation, vaccine technologies and vaccination strategies against influenza in horses and humans are compared and discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fleur Whitlock
- Medical Research Council, University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (F.W.); (P.R.M.)
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance (EIDS), Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Pablo R. Murcia
- Medical Research Council, University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (F.W.); (P.R.M.)
| | - J. Richard Newton
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance (EIDS), Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
Horses are the third major mammalian species, along with humans and swine, long known to be subject to acute upper respiratory disease from influenza A virus infection. The viruses responsible are subtype H7N7, which is believed extinct, and H3N8, which circulates worldwide. The equine influenza lineages are clearly divergent from avian influenza lineages of the same subtypes. Their genetic evolution and potential for interspecies transmission, as well as clinical features and epidemiology, are discussed. Equine influenza is spread internationally and vaccination is central to control efforts. The current mechanism of international surveillance and virus strain recommendations for vaccines is described.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Chambers
- Department of Veterinary Science, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Singh RK, Dhama K, Karthik K, Khandia R, Munjal A, Khurana SK, Chakraborty S, Malik YS, Virmani N, Singh R, Tripathi BN, Munir M, van der Kolk JH. A Comprehensive Review on Equine Influenza Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathobiology, Advances in Developing Diagnostics, Vaccines, and Control Strategies. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1941. [PMID: 30237788 PMCID: PMC6135912 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Among all the emerging and re-emerging animal diseases, influenza group is the prototype member associated with severe respiratory infections in wide host species. Wherein, Equine influenza (EI) is the main cause of respiratory illness in equines across globe and is caused by equine influenza A virus (EIV-A) which has impacted the equine industry internationally due to high morbidity and marginal morality. The virus transmits easily by direct contact and inhalation making its spread global and leaving only limited areas untouched. Hitherto reports confirm that this virus crosses the species barriers and found to affect canines and few other animal species (cat and camel). EIV is continuously evolving with changes at the amino acid level wreaking the control program a tedious task. Until now, no natural EI origin infections have been reported explicitly in humans. Recent advances in the diagnostics have led to efficient surveillance and rapid detection of EIV infections at the onset of outbreaks. Incessant surveillance programs will aid in opting a better control strategy for this virus by updating the circulating vaccine strains. Recurrent vaccination failures against this virus due to antigenic drift and shift have been disappointing, however better understanding of the virus pathogenesis would make it easier to design effective vaccines predominantly targeting the conserved epitopes (HA glycoprotein). Additionally, the cold adapted and canarypox vectored vaccines are proving effective in ceasing the severity of disease. Furthermore, better understanding of its genetics and molecular biology will help in estimating the rate of evolution and occurrence of pandemics in future. Here, we highlight the advances occurred in understanding the etiology, epidemiology and pathobiology of EIV and a special focus is on designing and developing effective diagnostics, vaccines and control strategies for mitigating the emerging menace by EIV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raj K. Singh
- ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | - Kuldeep Dhama
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | - Kumaragurubaran Karthik
- Central University Laboratory, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai, India
| | - Rekha Khandia
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
| | - Ashok Munjal
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
| | | | - Sandip Chakraborty
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, West Tripura, India
| | - Yashpal S. Malik
- Division of Biological Standardization, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | | | - Rajendra Singh
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | | | - Muhammad Munir
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Johannes H. van der Kolk
- Division of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Swiss Institute for Equine Medicine (ISME), Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern and Agroscope, Bern, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
|
6
|
Cullinane A, Newton JR. Equine influenza--a global perspective. Vet Microbiol 2013; 167:205-14. [PMID: 23680107 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Revised: 03/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/28/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
To date, equine influenza outbreaks have been reported all over the world with the exception of a small number of island nations including New Zealand and Iceland. Influenza is endemic in Europe and North America and is considered to be of potentially major economic significance to the equine industry worldwide. The importation of subclinically infected vaccinated horses, and inadequate quarantine procedures have resulted in several major outbreaks in susceptible populations for example, in Australia (2007) when more than 76,000 horses on over 10,000 properties were reported as infected. This review summarises the current understanding of, and recent research on, equine influenza, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical characteristics, laboratory diagnosis, management and prevention. Recent advances in diagnostic techniques are discussed as are the merits of different vaccination regimes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Cullinane
- Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare, Ireland.
| | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Priestnall SL, Smith KC. Canine infectious respiratory disease: tackling the unknown unknowns. Vet J 2012; 191:271-2. [PMID: 22264644 PMCID: PMC7129685 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 12/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
8
|
Daly JM, MacRae S, Newton JR, Wattrang E, Elton DM. Equine influenza: a review of an unpredictable virus. Vet J 2010; 189:7-14. [PMID: 20685140 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.06.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2010] [Revised: 06/24/2010] [Accepted: 06/30/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
This review discusses some of the challenges still faced in the control of equine influenza virus H3N8 infection. A widespread outbreak of equine influenza in the United Kingdom during 2003 in vaccinated Thoroughbred racehorses challenged the current dogma on vaccine strain selection. Furthermore, several new developments in the first decade of the 21st century, including transmission to and establishment in dogs, a presumed influenza-associated encephalopathy in horses and an outbreak of equine influenza in Australia, serve as a reminder of the unpredictable nature of influenza viruses. The application of newly available techniques described in this review may further elucidate some of the viral factors that underlie recent events and provide the tools to better evaluate when vaccine strains should be updated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janet M Daly
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Sutton Bonington, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, UK.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Equine influenza outbreak in India (2008–09): Virus isolation, sero-epidemiology and phylogenetic analysis of HA gene. Vet Microbiol 2010; 143:224-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2009] [Revised: 11/26/2009] [Accepted: 12/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
10
|
Abstract
A key question in pandemic influenza is the relative roles of innate immunity and target cell depletion in limiting primary infection and modulating pathology. Here, we model these interactions using detailed data from equine influenza virus infection, combining viral and immune (type I interferon) kinetics with estimates of cell depletion. The resulting dynamics indicate a powerful role for innate immunity in controlling the rapid peak in virus shedding. As a corollary, cells are much less depleted than suggested by a model of human influenza based only on virus-shedding data. We then explore how differences in the influence of viral proteins on interferon kinetics can account for the observed spectrum of virus shedding, immune response, and influenza pathology. In particular, induction of high levels of interferon ("cytokine storms"), coupled with evasion of its effects, could lead to severe pathology, as hypothesized for some fatal cases of influenza.
Collapse
|
11
|
Bryant NA, Rash AS, Russell CA, Ross J, Cooke A, Bowman S, MacRae S, Lewis NS, Paillot R, Zanoni R, Meier H, Griffiths LA, Daly JM, Tiwari A, Chambers TM, Newton JR, Elton DM. Antigenic and genetic variations in European and North American equine influenza virus strains (H3N8) isolated from 2006 to 2007. Vet Microbiol 2009; 138:41-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2008] [Revised: 02/16/2009] [Accepted: 03/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
12
|
Daly JM, Blunden AS, Macrae S, Miller J, Bowman SJ, Kolodziejek J, Nowotny N, Smith KC. Transmission of equine influenza virus to English foxhounds. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14:461-4. [PMID: 18325262 PMCID: PMC2570814 DOI: 10.3201/eid1403.070643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
We retrospectively demonstrated that an outbreak of severe respiratory disease in a pack of English foxhounds in the United Kingdom in September 2002 was caused by an equine influenza A virus (H3N8). We also demonstrated that canine respiratory tissue possesses the relevant receptors for infection with equine influenza virus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janet M Daly
- Animal Health Trust, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, UK.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Daly JM, Sindle T, Tearle J, Barquero N, Newton JR, Corning S. Equine influenza vaccine containing older H3N8 strains offers protection against A/eq/South Africa/4/03 (H3N8) strain in a short-term vaccine efficacy study. Equine Vet J 2007; 39:446-50. [PMID: 17910270 DOI: 10.2746/042516407x180327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY Surveillance of equine influenza viruses has suggested that strains included in currently licensed vaccines are a poor match for those predominantly circulating in the field. OBJECTIVE To assess the ability of Duvaxyn IE-T Plus to provide cross protection against the newly evolved South Africa/4/03 (H3N8) strain of equine influenza virus. METHODS The vaccine efficacy was evaluated by challenge infection with influenza strain A/eq/South Africa/4/03 (H3N8) 2 weeks after a primary course of 2 vaccinations with Duvaxyn IE-T Plus given at a 4-week interval. The outcome of challenge in vaccinated ponies was compared with that in unvaccinated animals. RESULTS At the time of challenge, all vaccinated ponies had high levels of antibody to Newmarket/1/93, Newmarket/2/93 and South Africa/4/03 strains measured by single radial haemolysis. After challenge infection, there were statistically significantly decreased clinical scores and virus shedding was significantly lower in the vaccinated ponies compared to unvaccinated controls. CONCLUSION Two doses of Duvaxyn IE-T Plus provides good clinical and virological protection against challenge with a variant virus 2 weeks after the 2 doses of vaccine. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE When variant strains of equine influenza virus first emerge, booster immunisations with currently available vaccines may limit infection provided sufficiently high antibody levels are achieved, suggesting that vaccination in the face of an outbreak may be beneficial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J M Daly
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 7UU, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|