A PES framework coupling socioeconomic and ecosystem dynamics from a sustainable development perspective

Significant implications of diversity and stability for ecosystem sustainability necessitate differentiated management strategies: A case study of the urban agglomeration around Hangzhou Bay, China

Ecosystems are crucial for providing essential services, supporting ecological conservation, and promoting sustainable development on both regional and global scales. However, robust methodologies and comprehensive frameworks for assessing ecosystem sustainability are still lacking. This study presents an integrated framework that incorporates both diversity and stability in evaluating ecosystem sustainability. Our methodology involves a multi-step process: first, we select and integrate landscape metrics to quantify ecosystem diversity; second, we establish an ecological network and apply a robustness model to assess ecosystem stability; finally, we delineate zones of ecosystem sustainability based on the combined assessments of diversity and stability. Our findings reveal that (1) from 1995 to 2020, ecosystem diversity significantly increased within the urban agglomeration around Hangzhou Bay (UAHB), with notable regional patterns, particularly in Huzhou, Jiaxing, and Ningbo. (2) The structure and connectivity of the ecological network have markedly improved, with network robustness in 2020 surpassing that of 1995, indicating enhanced ecosystem stability. (3) Five distinct ecological zones were identified-high sustainability protected areas, ecosystem stability improving areas, low sustainability fragile areas, ecosystem diversity improving areas, and moderate sustainability transition areas-each accompanied by specific management strategies. This research offers theoretical insights and practical guidance for ecological protection and restoration, advancing sustainable ecosystem development.

How does payment for watershed ecosystem services alleviate farmer poverty in conservation intervention areas? Evidence from China

Payment for watershed ecosystem services (PES) has been applied to water conservation and poverty reduction in an increasing number of developing countries. This study evaluates the effect of payment for watershed ecosystem services on farmers' income in conservation intervention areas using a difference-in-differences model and a panel dataset that covers 18 countries in the Xin'an River Basin in China for fourteen consecutive years (2006-2019). The results show that PES programs increase farmers' income and that the poverty reduction effect is sustainable. The PES programs mainly increase the farmers' income in conservation intervention areas through two paths: triggering the transfer of agricultural labor and promoting agricultural restructuring. PES programs are pro-poor and more conducive to increasing the income of farmers in upstream regions and counties with lower levels of economic development. This paper reveals the specific role played by PES in promoting rural poverty reduction in developing countries, providing insights into alleviating the contradiction between poverty and watershed ecosystem protection.

Biodiversity loss through cropland displacement for urban expansion in China

As a result of rapid economic development, urban expansion reduced the cropland in China. To secure the food supply, cropland displacement to maintain the quantity and quality of cropland has been implemented. Here, we quantified the biodiversity losses due to cropland displacement resulting from urban expansion from a telecoupling perspective in China from 1980 to 2020. A comprehensive multimodel assessment demonstrated that the indirect biodiversity losses due to cropland displacement resulting from urban expansion were approximately 2 to 3 times higher than its direct biodiversity losses, at a total loss of approximately 0.6 % to 1.0 %, as indicated by three biodiversity indicators. Displaced cropland with a higher biodiversity cost but lower cropland productivity is the main reason for the excessive indirect losses and suggests that socioecological processes may be detrimental to the synergistic benefits of the UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) for food security and terrestrial biodiversity. This study also identified source-sink hotspots for indirect biodiversity losses, which can contribute to improving biodiversity conservation, optimizing the spatial distribution of cropland and thus enhancing socioecological system sustainability.

Mixed success for carbon payments and subsidies in support of forest restoration in the neotropics

Restoration of forests in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) has the potential to contribute to international carbon mitigation targets. However, high upfront costs and variable cashflows are obstacles for many landholders. Carbon payments have been promoted as a mechanism to incentivize restoration and economists have suggested cost-sharing by third parties to reduce financial burdens of restoration. Yet empirical evidence to support this theory, based on robust, dynamic field sampling is lacking. Here we use large, long-term datasets from Panama to evaluate the financial prospects of three forest restoration methods under different cost-sharing and carbon payment designs where income is generated through timber harvests. We show some, but not all options are economically viable. Further work combining growth and survival data from field trials with more sophisticated financial analyses is essential to understanding barriers and realizing the potential of forest restoration in LMICs to help meet global carbon mitigation commitments.