The Gardenia jasminoides extract and its constituent, geniposide, elicit anti-allergic effects on atopic dermatitis by inhibiting histamine in vitro and in vivo

Chemical Characterization of the Traditional Chinese Medicine Zishui Qingxin Yin by Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography and Q Exactive Orbitrap Mass Spectrometers Combined With Molecular Networking and Quantitative Analysis of the Main Components by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography With Diode Array Detection

Atopic dermatitis is a recurrent, pruritic, localized eczema. Zishui Qingxin Yin (ZSQXY) is derived from two classic prescriptions, Daochi San and Bao He Wan, and has a significant antipruritic effect in clinical practice, but the pharmacodynamic material basis of its action is still unclear. In this study, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography and Q Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometers combined with Molecular Networking method was established to comprehensively analyze its chemical components. A total of 247 chemical compounds were identified, of which 12 were new compounds; the structural types included 89 flavonoids, 54 terpenoids, 56 alkaloids, 39 phenylpropanoids, and 18 other compounds, and the identified compounds were classified into different traditional Chinese medicines. At the same time, high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection was used to determine the content of 14 compounds with higher contents in ZSQXY. This study provides a scientific basis for further studying the mechanism of action, metabolic characteristics, and subsequent development of ZSQXY.

Development and validation of the HPLC-MS/MS method and its application to the pharmacokinetic study for the Mongolian drug Sendeng-4 in rat blood plasma

Abstract

Sendeng-4 is a Mongolian drug. The Mongolian people have been using it to treat rheumatoid arthritis. At present, an increasing number of Han people are paying attention to the anti-rheumatoid effect of Sendeng-4. However, information on the pharmacokinetics of Sendeng-4 is limited, which limits its wide application in China.

Objective

Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was established to study the pharmacokinetics of Sendeng-4.

Method

MS/MS with a negative ionization mode (ESI-) and multiple reaction monitoring at m/z 300.95→193.09 and 317.08→192.10 were detected for (2R, 3R)-dihydromyricetin and myricetin, respectively. The pharmacokinetic parameters were analyzed by DAS 2.0.

Result

The results showed that the plasma concentration time (C-T) curves of (2R, 3R)-dihydromyricetin and myricetin showed double peaks. The Tmax value of (2R, 3R)-dihydromyricetin and myricetin in both groups was 3 h. In absorption, the AUC(0-∞) values of (2R, 3R)-dihydromyricetin and myricetin in the normal group and the arthritis model group were 16.151 ± 2.670 mg·h/L vs. 11.331 ± 0.749 mg·h/L and 2.626 ± 0.400 mg·h/L vs. 2.213 ± 0.388 mg·h/L, respectively. In the distribution, the Vz/F values of (2R, 3R)-dihydromyricetin and myricetin in the normal group and the arthritis model group were 8.212 L/kg vs. 1.744 L/kg and 5.252 L/kg vs. 10.568 L/kg, respectively. In metabolism, the MRT (0-∞) values of (2R, 3R)-dihydromyricetin and myricetin in the normal group and the arthritis model group were 6.848 h vs. 3.476 h and 5.661 h vs. 8.959 h, respectively. In excretion, the CLz/F values of (2R, 3R)-dihydromyricetin and myricetin in the normal group and the arthritis model group were 0.021 vs. 0.024 L/min/kg and 0.018 vs. 0.021 L/min/kg, respectively. There were significant variations in the absorption levels, distribution levels, and elimination rate of (2R, 3R)-dihydromyricetin and myricetin after the administration of Sendeng-4.

Conclusion

The study laid the foundation for the subsequent study of pharmacokinetics of Sendeng-4 in humans. The results of this study will contribute to a better understanding of the activity and clinical application of Sendeng-4 and other related traditional Mongolian drug prescriptions.

Immunomodulatory and osteogenic effects of chitosan-based injectable hydrogel with geniposide-loaded mesoporous bioactive glass

The immune response dominated by macrophages plays a pivotal role in the regeneration of bone tissue. In this work, an injectable temperature-responsive hydrogel composed of geniposide-loaded mesoporous bioactive glass, chitosan and β-glycerophosphate (G-M Gel) was prepared, showing robustly networks, uniform pore structure, excellent biocompatibility, immunomodulatory effect and osteogenic potential. In an inflammatory microenvironment elicited by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the proportion of M1 and M2 macrophages measured by flow cytometry were 33.17 % and 2.07 %, respectively. After G-M Gel treatment, the proportion of M1 macrophages decreased to 14.4 %, while the proportion of M2 macrophages increased significantly to 16.2 %. LPS treated macrophage conditioned medium inhibited the expression of osteogenic related factors (OCN, OPN, Runx2), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and alizarin red S (ARS) in MC3T3-E1 cells. In contrast, LPS + G-M Gel treated macrophage conditioned medium significantly increased the expression of osteogenic related factors, ALP and ARS. These results demonstrated that G-M Gel can augment bone formation by promoting the polarization of M2 macrophages, showing great potential clinical application of G-M Gel in bone regeneration field.

Anti-Inflammatory Herbal Extracts and Their Drug Discovery Perspective in Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is an allergic disorder characterized by skin inflammation. It is well known that the activation of various inflammatory cells and the generation of inflammatory molecules are closely linked to the development of AD. There is accumulating evidence demonstrating the beneficial effects of herbal extracts (HEs) on the regulation of inflammatory response in both in vitro and in vivo studies of AD. This review summarizes the anti-atopic effects of HEs and its associated underlying mechanisms, with a brief introduction of in vitro and in vivo experiment models of AD based on previous and recent studies. Thus, this review confirms the utility of HEs for AD therapy.

Comprehensive Review on Phytoconstituents-based Nanomedicine for the Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is known as a chronic disease characterized by eczematous and pruritus skin lesions. The pathology behind atopic dermatitis etiology is loss of epidermal barrier, which prevents the production of protein filaggrin that can induce T-cell infiltration and inflammation. Treatment of AD is majorly based on limiting skin repair as well as reducing inflammation and itching. There are several remedies available for the treatment of AD, such as Janus kinase and calcineurin inhibitors, topical corticosteroids, and phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors. The conventional formulations in the market have limited safety and efficacy. Hence, effective treatment of atopic dermatitis requires the development of novel, efficacious, reliable, and specific therapies. Recent research data have revealed that some naturally occurring medicinal plants have potential applications in the management of AD through different mechanisms. The nanotechnology-based therapeutics have gained a lot of attention in the last decade for the improvement in the activity of drugs having low absorption due to poor solubility, thus leading to lesser bioavailability. Therapies based on nanotechnology can be an effective way to overcome these obstacles. Due to their effective propensity to provide better drug diffusion and bioavailability as well as drug targeting potential at the desired site of action, these approaches may have decreased adverse drug effects, better penetration, and enhanced therapeutic efficacy. Hence, this review highlights the potential of phytoconstituents-based novel formulations for the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Furthermore, recent patents on therapeutic approaches to atopic dermatitis have also been briefly described.

Preparative separation of iridoid glucosides and crocins from Gardeniae Fructus using sequential macroporous resin column chromatography and evaluation of their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities

Iridoid glycosides (geniposide (GP), genipin-1-gentiobioside (GB), etc.) and crocins (crocin Ⅰ (CR1), crocin Ⅱ(CR2), etc.) are two main bioactive components in Gardeniae Fructus (GF), which is a famous traditional Chinese medicine. Iridoid glycosides exhibit many activities and are used to manufacture gardenia blue pigment for the food industry. Crocins are rare natural water-soluble carotenoids that are often used as food colorants. A sequential macroporous resin column chromatography technology composed of HC-500B and HC-900B resins was developed to selectively separate iridoid glucosides and crocins from GF. The adsorption of GP on HC-900B resin was an exothermic process. The adsorption of CR1 on HC-500B resin was an endothermic process. The two kinds of components were completely separated by a sequential resin column. GB and GP were mainly found in product 1 (P1) with purities of 11.38% and 46.83%, respectively, while CR1 and CR2 were mainly found in product 2 (P2) with purities of 12.32% and 1.40%, respectively. The recovery yields of all the compounds were more than 80%. The above results showed that sequential resin column chromatography technology achieved high selectivity and recovery yields. GF extract, P1 and P2 could significantly inhibit the secretion of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 cells, indicating that iridoid glycosides and crocins provide a greater contribution to the anti-inflammatory activity of GF. At the same time, compared to the GF extract and P1, P2 exhibited stronger scavenging activities against 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radicals, indicating that crocins may provide a significant contribution to the antioxidant activity of GF.

Investigation of the Ability of Crocin to Treat Skin Cancer Chemically Induced in Mice via the Inhibition of the Wnt/β-Catenin and Fibrotic Pathway

Background The Wnt pathway is a major pathway in the pathogenesis of skin cancer. Moreover, crocin is one of the carotenoid compounds present in the flowers of gardenia and crocus. Crocin is responsible for the characteristic color of saffron. Aims This study was conducted to discover the therapeutic effects of crocin against skin cancer induced in mice by blocking the Wnt pathway with subsequent effects on inflammation and fibrosis. Methods For the induction of skin cancer in mice, the application of DMBA and Croton oil was used. The dorsal skin was used for the evaluation of the gene and protein expression of TGF-β, SMAD, Wnt, β-catenin, TNF-α, and NFκB. Part of the skin is stained with Mallory trichrome. Results The use of crocin for treating skin cancer mice significantly reduced both the number of tumors and the number of scratches. In addition, crocin inhibited epidermal hyperplasia. Finally, crocin reduced the gene expression and protein levels of Wnt, β-catenin, SMAD, NFκB; TGF-β and TNF-α. Conclusions Crocin produced therapeutic effects against skin cancer induced in mice by blocking the expression of Wnt followed by blocking the pro-inflammatory pathway through downregulation of NFκB and TNF-α. In addition, crocin blocked the fibrosis pathway via the downregulation of TGF-β.

Topical Administration of Gardenia jasminoides Extract Regulates Th2 Immunity in OVA-Induced Mice

A key feature of an allergic immune response is a T helper type 2 (Th2)-mediated response with production of allergen-specific IgE antibodies. Gardenia jasminoides extract with the crocin removed (GJExCR) has been shown to inhibit IgE-mediated allergic disease. To evaluate the efficacy and mechanism-of-action of this inhibition, GJExCR was used in an ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergy model in BALB/C mice. Sensitization of BALB/C mice with OVA and aluminum hydroxide was performed on days 1 and 14 by intraperitoneal injection, followed by OVA challenge to the dorsal skin for 2 weeks before removal. Seven days post-challenge, mice were treated with GJExCR topically every day for 11 days. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, flow cytometry analysis, real-time PCR, and western blot were performed to determine IgE and Th2 cytokine levels. Following OVA challenge, Th2 cytokine expression and both total and OVA-specific serum IgE levels increased, of which OVA-specific IgE and Th2 cytokine levels decreased after GJExCR treatment. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that GJExCR treatment decreased CD4+ and CD8+ T cell populations in the spleen and lymph nodes. In addition, treatment with GJExCR downregulated signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) activation and Th2 cytokine levels as compared to control. GJExCR containing geniposide downregulated STAT1 activation in HaCaT cells. These findings demonstrate that GJExCR exerts its anti-allergy effect via inhibition of STAT1 activation, thus regulating the immune response via modulation of Th2 cytokine release and IgE levels. Therefore, we propose GJExCR as a potential treatment for allergic hypersensitivity reactions.

Management of Atopic Dermatitis Via Oral and Topical Administration of Herbs in Murine Model: A Systematic Review

Over the past few decades, complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) using herbs, or their active constituents have garnered substantial attention in the management of a chronic and relapsing inflammatory skin disorder called atopic dermatitis (AD), particularly in attenuating disease recurrence and maintaining long-term remission. In Eastern Asian countries including China, Korea and Taiwan, herbal medicine available in both topical and oral preparation plays a significant role in treating skin diseases like AD as they possibly confer high anti-inflammatory properties and immunomodulatory functions. Conventional murine models of AD have been employed in drug discovery to provide scientific evidence for conclusive and specific pharmacological effects elicited by the use of traditional herbs and their active constituents. Coupled with the goal to develop safe and effective novel therapeutic agents for AD, this systematic review consists of a summary of 103 articles on both orally and topically administered herbs and their active constituents in the murine model, whereby articles were screened and selected via a specialized framework known as PICO (Population, Intervention, Comparator and Outcome). The objectives of this review paper were to identify the efficacy of oral and topical administered herbs along with their active constituents in alleviating AD and the underlying mechanism of actions, as well as the animal models and choice of inducer agents used in these studies. The main outcome on the efficacy of the majority of the herbs and their active constituents illustrated suppression of Th2 response as well as improvements in the severity of AD lesions, suppression of Immunoglobulin E (IgE) concentration and mast cell infiltration. The majority of these studies used BALB/c mice followed by NC/Nga mice (commonly used gender-male; commonly used age group - 6-8 weeks). The most used agent in inducing AD was 2, 4-Dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB), and the average induction period for both oral and topical administered herbs and their active constituents in AD experiments lasted between 3 and 4 weeks. In light of these findings, this review paper could potentially assist researchers in exploring the potential candidate herbs and their active constituents using murine model for the amelioration of AD.

A review of the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Fructus Gardeniae (Zhi-zi)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Fructus Gardeniae (FG) is the dried fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (GjE), which belongs to the family Rubiaceae. FG has a long history of use as a herb, and was originally recorded in Sheng Nong's herbal classic. FG has also been widely used as both medicine and food.

AIM OF STUDY

This review aimed to provide a systematic and comprehensive analysis of the current research progress of FG in terms of ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity, to provide new insights and extensive field of view for subsequent studies.

METHODS

Scientific databases, including CNKI, VIP (Chinese literature), PubMed, Science Direct, Elsevier and Google Scholar (English literatures) were searched to gather data about FG and its main active ingredients such as geniposide and genipin (only regarding toxicity).

RESULTS

Many chemical constituents have been identified from the fruit of GjE, including iridoids, terpenoids, flavonoids, organic acids, volatile oils and others. The constituents of different parts of FG and processed FG are different from those of whole FG. FG extract and its main active constituents have been reported to have pharmacological properties such as hepatoprotective, choleretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-apoptotic and antitumor activities. However, an increasing number of studies have shown that FG induces multiple organ injury, especially causing hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity, which could increase the risk during clinical use. The available literature shows that geniposide, a major active component of FG and a critical marker for its quality, is associated with the pharmacology and toxicity of FG.

CONCLUSION

Although a large number of studies examining FG have been published, issues remain. In the aspect of FG's pharmacology, the traditional efficacy and modern pharmacological effects of FG should be combined, which to broadens clinical application prospects. In addition, few studies have assessed the toxicity of FG. Toxicity assessment of FG should tackle various aspects, including compatibility, processing and the symptom-based prescription theory, in addition to over-dosage or long-term use, for a reasonable clinical use.

In Vivo Delivery of M0, M1, and M2 Macrophage Subtypes via Genipin-Crosslinked Collagen Biotextile

Developing strategies to regulate the immune response poses significant challenges with respect to the clinical translation of tissue-engineered scaffolds. Prominent advancements have been made relating to macrophage-based therapies and biomaterials. Macrophages exhibit the potential to influence healing trajectory, and predominance of particular subtypes during early onset of healing influences repair outcomes. This study evaluated short- and long-term healing response and postoperative mechanical properties of genipin-crosslinked, electrochemically-aligned collagen biotextiles with comparative administration of M0, M1, and M2 subtypes. Irrespective of macrophage subtype seeded, all groups demonstrated existence of M2 macrophages at both time points as typified by arginase and Ym-1 expressions, and distinct absence of M1 macrophages, as indicated by lack of iNOS and IL-1β expression in all groups for both time points. M2 macrophage-seeded collagen biotextiles revealed promising host tissue responses, such as reduced fibrous capsule thickness and minimal granulation tissue formation. Furthermore, the M2-seeded group displayed more abundant interstitial collagen deposition following degradation of the collagen threads. M2 macrophage supplementation improved structural and mechanical properties at the tissue and cellular level as indicated by increased modulus and stiffness. This study demonstrates improved biomechanical and histological outcomes following incorporation of M2 macrophages into genipin-crosslinked collagen biotextiles for tissue repair and offers future strategies focused on connective tissue regeneration.

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis Fruit Extracts Attenuated Colitis in 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzenesulfonic Acid-Induced Rats

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a relapsing inflammatory disease with an unknown precise etiology. The purpose of this study is to investigate the protective effects of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit extracts (GFE) on 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis in rats. GFE (50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg) were administered orally for 7 days after induction. Meanwhile, the chemical components of GFE were performed by UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS. GFE significantly decreased DAI scores and ameliorated macroscopic and histologic damage. It also reduced the levels of MPO, NO, MDA, IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6, while increasing the level of SOD. Moreover, 56 components were identified in GFE using a UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS method, which can be categorized into six structural groups. Our results indicated that GFE has an ameliorative effect on TNBS-induced colitis in rats, which may further verify its anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties. Therefore, GFE can be a promising protective agent of colitis that deserves further investigation.

Gardenia jasminoides extract ameliorates DfE-induced atopic dermatitis in mice through restoration of barrier function and T-helper 2-mediated immune response

Atopic dermatitis (AD) leads to skin barrier abnormalities and immune dysfunction. As the topical steroids commonly used to treat AD have side effects from long-term use, research into safer treatments for AD is greatly needed. The medicinal herb Gardenia jasminoides improves AD symptoms via skin barrier activation and T helper 2-mediated immune response regulation. Crocin, a bioactive component within the extract, is dispensible for its restorative effects. As such, this work explored the effects of Gardenia jasminoides extract without crocin (GjexCr) on AD symptoms in a DfE-induced AD model in 6-week-old male NC/Nga mice (25.0 ± 0.25 g, n = 10 each, 6 groups). Using histological and behavioral assays, the effects of GjexCr on dermatitis scores, scratching behavior, skin barrier activation, and serum levels of IgE, chemokines, and cytokines were analyzed. In addition, the major components from the GjexCr extract were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography and validated in the AD model. GjexCr reduced ear thickness due to hyperkeratosis, dermal thickening, and scratching behavior and restored dermatitis scores in AD-induced mice. GjexCr administration also decreased inflammation and mast cell infiltration, as well as modulated skin barrier recovery by upregulating the production of epidermal proteins. Moreover, GjexCr administration attenuated imbalanced immune responses. Furthermore, geniposide, the main component of GjexCr, improved AD symptoms in DfE-treated NC/Nga mice. Thus, GjexCr could be a suitable treatment for protecting the skin barrier in AD-like skin lesions and a potential therapy for AD.

Gardenia jasminoides Attenuates Allergic Rhinitis-Induced Inflammation by Inhibiting Periostin Production

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a chronic inflammatory condition affecting the nasal mucosa of the upper airways. Herein, we investigated the effects of extracts from Gardenia jasminoides (GJ), a traditional herbal medicine with anti-inflammatory properties, on AR-associated inflammatory responses that cause epithelial damage. We investigated the inhibitory effects of water- and ethanol-extracted GJ (GJW and GJE, respectively) in an ovalbumin-induced AR mouse model and in splenocytes, differentiated Th2 cells, and primary human nasal epithelial cells (HNEpCs). Administering GJW and GJE to ovalbumin-induced AR mice improved clinical symptoms including behavior (sneezing and rubbing), serum cytokine levels, immune cell counts, and histopathological marker levels. Treatment with GJW and GJE reduced the secretion of Th2 cytokines in Th2 cells isolated and differentiated from the splenocytes of these mice. To investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms of AR, we treated IL-4/IL-13-stimulated HNEpCs with GJW and GJE; we found that these extracts significantly reduced the production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species via the uncoupling protein-2 and periostin, a biomarker of the Th2 inflammatory response. Our results suggest that GJ extracts may potentially serve as therapeutic agents to improve the symptoms of AR by regulating the Th2 inflammatory response of the nasal epithelium.

Efficacy of Longdan Xiegan Decoction on the Treatment of Eczema: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Longdan Xiegan decoction (LDXGD) has been widely used in the treatment of eczema. In recent years, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of LDXGD for the treatment of eczema have gradually increased. Most of the results show that LDXGD is effective in treating eczema. However, whether these conclusions are reliable or not requires meta-analysis.

Objective

This study aimed to systematically evaluate the clinical efficacy of LDXGD in the treatment of eczema.

Materials and Methods

Seven electronic databases, including PubMed, Excerpta Medica Database (EMBASE), Cochrane Library, Chinese Biomedical Literature on Disc (CBM), China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), WanFang, and Chinese Science and Technology Periodical Database (VIP) were systematically searched from their inception until January 2021. Risk of bias was assessed using criteria from the Cochrane Collaboration and meta-analysis was conducted on the screened literature data using Review Manage (RevMan 5.3). Then, to assess the quality of evidence, the GRADE criteria was adopted.

Results

14 RCTs with 1080 participants were identified. Meta-analysis indicated that compared with western medicine (WM), the cure rate and the total effective rate of LDXGD in treating eczema were higher. Meanwhile, the recurrence rate and the levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) after treatment were lower. The adverse reaction was reported in 5 out of 14 studies without significant statistical difference. According to GRADE criteria, the quality of evidence was low for all outcomes except for the cure rate (moderate-quality evidence) and the total effective rate (moderate-quality evidence).

Conclusion

The clinical efficacy of LDXGD in the treatment of eczema was more effective compared with the one of conventional WM alone. However, due to the limitation of the quality of the included studies, additional studies are required to further confirm these results.

Atopic dermatitis: new insight into the etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis and novel treatment strategies

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is the long-lasting chronic inflammatory skin condition associated with cutaneous hyper-reactivity and triggered by environmental factors. The attributes of AD include dry skin, pruritus, lichenification and frequent eczematous abrasions. This has a strong heritable aspect and typically occurs with asthma and allergic rhinitis. The complex pathological mechanism behind AD etiology is epidermal barrier destruction resulting in the lack of filaggrin protein that can induce inflammation and T-cell infiltration. T-helper 2 cell-mediated pathways also bear the responsibility of damage to the epidermal barrier. Certain causative factors for AD include microbial imbalance of skin microbiota, immunoglobulin-E-induced sensitization and neuro-inflammation. Numerous beneficial topical and oral treatments have been available to patients and there are even more drugs in the pipeline for the treatment of AD. Topical moisturizers, corticosteroids, anti-inflammatory agents such as calcineurin inhibitors, phototherapy, cAMP-specific 3, 5 half-cyclic phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors and systemic immunosuppressants are widely available for AD treatments. Different positions and pathways inside the immune system including JAK-STAT, phosphodiesterase 4, aryl hydrocarbon receptor and T-helper 2 cytokines are targeted by above-mentioned drug treatments. Instead of the severe side effects of topical steroids and oral antihistamines, herbal plants and their derived phytoconstituents are commonly used for the treatment of AD. A clear understanding of AD's cellular and molecular pathogenesis through substantial advancement in genetics, skin immunology and psychological factors resulted in advancement of AD management. Therefore, the review highlights the recent advancements in the understanding of clinical features, etiology, pathogenesis, treatment and management and non-adherence to AD treatment.

Discrimination Between Fructus Gardeniae (ZZ) and Fructus Gardeniae Grandiflorae (SZZ) Based on Fingerprint Coupled with Chemometrics and Quantitative Analysis

Fructus Gardeniae, known as Zhi-zi in China, has been used as Chinese herbal medicine and functional health food for thousands of years. Fructus Gardeniae Grandiflorae, named as Shui-zhizi, is a counterfeit herb of Fructus Gardeniae. In order to discriminate these two varieties, based on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography, an analysis method of fingerprints of Fructus Gardeniae and Fructus Gardeniae Grandiflorae was established. With hierarchical clustering analysis and principal component analysis, they were separated into two groups. Analyzed with partial least squares discriminant analysis, there were differences in chemical compositions between Fructus Gardeniae and Fructus Gardeniae Grandiflorae. Six compounds, crocin I, genipin-1-β-D-gentiobioside and four other unknown compositions were identified as differential marker compositions between them. Furthermore, seven active substances in them were determined simultaneously. Thus, an integral method of ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography fingerprint combined with chemometrics analysis and quantitative assessment was established. It could be utilized in characterization, quality evaluation of Fructus Gardeniae and could be applied for discriminating Fructus Gardeniae from Fructus Gardeniae Grandiflorae.

Geniposide, a Principal Component of Gardeniae Fructus, Protects Skin from Diesel Exhaust Particulate Matter-Induced Oxidative Damage

Gardeniae Fructus (GF) is the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis and is traditionally prescribed to treat pyogenic infections and skin ulcers. This study investigated the protective effects of GF and the underlying mechanism responsible for these effects on diesel exhaust particulate matter- (DEP-) induced skin damage. The protective effects of an ethanolic extract of GF (GFE) and its constituents (geniposidic acid, gardenoside, geniposide, chlorogenic acid, and genipin) were examined by analyzing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, apoptosis, and tight junction (TJ) protein expression in HaCaT cells. Treatment with GFE dose-dependently inhibited intracellular ROS production and apoptosis by regulating the protein expressions of Bax, Bcl-2, and cytochrome C in DEP-stimulated (100 μg/ml) HaCaT cells. Mechanistic studies revealed that the protective effects of GFE were related to its activation of Nrf2 and HO-1 signaling in HaCaT cells. Geniposide, a main constituent of GFE, enhanced the expression of occludin in DEP-stimulated HaCaT cells. Furthermore, topical application of geniposide reduced the expressions of 8-OHdG and Bax and increased the expression of occludin in the dorsal skin lesions of DEP-stimulated mice. Gardeniae Fructus and its main component geniposide are potential candidates for the repair of DEP-induced skin damage due to their antioxidant and antiapoptotic activities.

Plant Extracts as a Natural Source of Bioactive Compounds and Potential Remedy for the Treatment of Certain Skin Diseases

Skin ailments present a major health burden in both developed and undeveloped countries. Maintaining healthy skin is important for a healthy body. Medicinal plants have long provided reliable therapy in the treatment of skin diseases in humans through a diverse range of bioactive molecules. Skin diseases may have a various basis, or may be genetically determined; together, they constitute approximately 34% of all occupational diseases encountered in people of all ages. Of these, melanoma is one of the most dangerous forms, with very poor prognosis for patients if it is diagnosed too late. This review of the literature over the past five years examines the role and utilities of plant extracts in treating various skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis, acne or melanoma with various potential mechanisms of action.

Comparative investigation of raw and processed products of Gardeniae Fructus and Gardenia jasminoides var. radicans using HPLC coupled with chemometric methods

As a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Gardeniae Fructus (GF) and its processed products, GF (stir-baked) and GF Praeparatus, have important medicinal value in clinical practice. Gardenia jasminoides var. radicans (GJVR) is a variant of GF, and because of the naming GJVR is often confused in the clinic with GF, resulting in medical misprescriptions. To distinguish GF and GJVR and study the changes before and after processing, the fingerprints of GF and GJVR are presented using HPLC, followed by hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), principal component analysis (PCA), and partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). GF has purging and choleretic effects, and in this study, we determined the content of main active ingredients to preliminarily assess the GF and GJVR quality from the perspective of material basis. For PCA score plot, the samples fell into six clusters, the cross-validity Q₂ (cum) = 0.842 and the cumulative contribution rate R² x (cum) = 0.988, indicating that the model has a good precision. The results were then corroborated by HCA and PLS-DA method, showing that this methodology can distinguish GF and GJVR and can be used for the comparison of raw and two processed products. According to the model established by PLS-DA, eight components were identified as the most significant variables for discrimination. The results obtained by multiple model methods are consistent and verified by each other, providing a scientific reference for further clarification of the medicinal properties of GF and GJVR.

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis: Ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, and pharmacological and industrial applications of an important traditional Chinese medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis is a popular shrub in the Rubiaceae family. The desiccative ripe fruits of this plant (called Zhizi in China) are well known and frequently used not only as an excellent natural colourant, but also as an important traditional medicine for the treatment of different diseases, such as reducing fire except vexed, clearing away heat evil, and cooling blood and eliminating stasis to activate blood circulation. It has also been declared as the first batch of dual-purpose plants used for food and medical functions in China.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review aims to provide a critical and systematic summary of the traditional uses, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicity and industrial applications of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis and briefly proposes several suggestions for future application prospects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The related information on Gardenia jasminoides Ellis was obtained from internationally recognized scientific databases through the Internet (PubMed, CNKI, Google Scholar, Baidu Scholar, Web of Science, Medline Plus, ACS, Elsevier and Flora of China) and libraries.

RESULTS

Approximately 162 chemical compounds have been isolated and identified from this herb. Among them, iridoid glycosides and yellow pigment are generally considered the main bioactive and characteristic ingredients. Various pharmacological properties, such as a beneficial effect on the nervous, cardiovascular and digestive systems, hepatoprotective activity, antidepressant activity, and anti-inflammatory activity, were also validated in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, geniposide and genipin are the most important iridoid compounds isolated from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, and genipin is the aglycone of geniposide. As the predominant active ingredient with a distinct pharmacological activity, genipin is also an outstanding biological crosslinking agent. Gardenia yellow pigment has also been widely used as an excellent natural dye-stuff. Hence, Gardenia jasminoides Ellis has been applied to many other fields, including the food industry, textile industry and chemical industry, in addition to its predominant medicinal uses.

CONCLUSIONS

According to this review, Gardenia jasminoides Ellis is outstanding traditional medical plant used in medicine and food. Pharmacological investigations support the traditional use of this herb and may validate the folk medicinal use of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis to treat different diseases. Iridoid glycosides are potential medicines. Gardenia yellow pigment has been the most important source of a natural colourant for food, cloth and paint for thousands of years. This herb has made great contributions to human survival and development. Moreover, it has also achieved outstanding progress in human life and even in art. Although Gardenia jasminoides Ellis has extremely high and comprehensive utilization values, it is still far from being completely explored. Therefore, the comprehensive development of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis deserves further analysis.

Gardenia jasminoides extract and its constituent, genipin, inhibit activation of CD3/CD28 co-stimulated CD4+ T cells via ORAI1 channel

Gardenia jasminoides (GJ) is a widely used herbal medicine with anti-inflammatory properties, but its effects on the ORAI1 channel, which is important in generating intracellular calcium signaling for T cell activation, remain unknown. In this study, we investigated whether 70% ethanolic GJ extract (GJ_EtOH) and its subsequent fractions inhibit ORAI1 and determined which constituents contributed to this effect. Whole-cell patch clamp analysis revealed that GJ_EtOH (64.7% ± 3.83% inhibition at 0.1 mg/ml) and all its fractions showed inhibitory effects on the ORAI1 channel. Among the GJ fractions, the hexane fraction (GJ_HEX, 66.8% ± 9.95% at 0.1 mg/ml) had the most potent inhibitory effects in hORAI1-hSTIM1 co-transfected HEK293T cells. Chemical constituent analysis revealed that the strong ORAI1 inhibitory effect of GJ_HEX was due to linoleic acid, and in other fractions, we found that genipin inhibited ORAI1. Genipin significantly inhibited I_ORAI1 and interleukin-2 production in CD3/CD28-stimulated Jurkat T lymphocytes by 35.9% ± 3.02% and 54.7% ± 1.32% at 30 μM, respectively. Furthermore, the same genipin concentration inhibited the proliferation of human primary CD4⁺ T lymphocytes stimulated with CD3/CD28 antibodies by 54.9% ± 8.22%, as evaluated by carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester assay. Our findings suggest that genipin may be one of the active components of GJ responsible for T cell suppression, which is partially mediated by activation of the ORAI1 channel. This study helps us understand the mechanisms of GJ in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Prescription Patterns of Wu Lin San Concentrated Extract Product for Cystitis in Taiwan: A Population-Based Study

The indications for the concentrated extract product (CEP) of Wu Lin San (WLS) are urethritis, cystitis, and gonorrhea. In clinical settings, WLS is combined with other CEPs used. However, there are no prescribed guidelines of CEPs in Taiwan. In this study, we would establish the CEP-prescribed applications of WLS for cystitis according to the clinical prescription patterns and ancient traditional medicine books. The prescription patterns of WLS were analyzed from the National Health Insurance Research Database of Taiwan for the period from 2000 to 2015. The results show that WLS was most frequently prescribed for cystitis (17.12% of a total prescriptions), and its prescribed dosage was 3∼5 g per day. Among them, 62.53% were for patients >40 years, and 72.45% were for women. Moreover, prescription patterns of WLS for cystitis were divided into 4 types: Type 1, WLS combined with Pa Cheng San (PCS) and Ti Tang Tang (29.75%); Type 2, WLS combined with PCS and dandelion (13.89%); Type 3, WLS combined with PCS and Tao Ho Cheng Chi Tang (6.63%); and Type 4, WLS combined with PCS (2.75%). According to lectures, review revealed the following principles of WLS application. WLS only should be adopted for simple heat strangury, while Type 4 should be applied for excess heat and dampness strangury. For patients with heat strangury coupled with an early-stage blood amassment pattern in lower jiao (abdomen), Type 3 could be administered. Type 2 should be used for heat strangury accompanied by dampness toxicity with infection. By contrast, Type 1 should be applied to patients with severe blood stasis. The application principles of WLS with other CEPs could serve as a reference for cystitis treatment in clinical settings.

Antipruritic Effect of Ethyl Acetate Extract from Fructus cnidii in Mice with 2,4-Dinitrofluorobenzene-Induced Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common inflammatory skin disease characterized by intense pruritus and skin lesions. The exact cause of AD is not yet known and the available therapeutic strategies for AD are limited. Fructus cnidii is commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine as an herb for treating chronic itch. However, the mechanism underlying the antipruritic effects of Fructus cnidii is not well understood. In the present study, we investigated the antipruritic effect of locally administered ethyl acetate extract from Fructus cnidii (EAEFC) to 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene- (DNFB-) induced AD in a mouse model. The scratching behavior, skin thickness, dermatitis score, weight, blood immunoglobulin E (IgE) level, and itch-related cytokine levels were subsequently monitored and evaluated. Results showed that EAEFC treatment attenuated the DNFB-induced AD-like symptoms by alleviating the skin lesions and decreasing the dermatitis score. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and toluidine blue (TB) staining analyses demonstrated that EAEFC mitigated the DNFB-induced increase in skin thickness and prevented the infiltration of mast cells. Behavioral tests showed that EAEFC decreased the DNFB-induced acute and chronic scratching behaviors. Furthermore, EAEFC reduced the levels of itch-related cytokines, such as thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), interleukin- (IL-) 17, IL-33, and IL-31, and the DNFB-induced boost in serum IgE. Collectively, these results suggest that EAEFC is a potential therapeutic candidate for the treatment of chronic itch in AD.

The formulae and biologically active ingredients of Chinese herbal medicines for the treatment of atopic dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common relapsing inflammatory skin disease characterized by severe pruritus that seriously affects the quality of patients' life. There is an increasingly large amount of research demonstrating that traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) including herbal formulae and bioactive ingredients exerts pharmacological effects on atopic dermatitis. It has been a long history of TCM being used to treat atopic dermatitis, especially in preventing disease recurrence, maintaining long-term remission, and reducing disease burden. Nowadays, both of TCM monomer preparations and traditional formulae are still widely used. This review focuses on TCM as well as its bioactive ingredients for the treatment of AD, from the perspectives of animal model construction, pharmacodynamic mechanisms and clinical studies of formulae. To be more specific, the regulation and molecular mechanisms of the herbal formulae and bioactive ingredients of TCM are investigated, and the latest clinical research on TCM formulae is discussed. Furthermore, it provides a summary of the strengths and utilities of TCM, and will be useful for doctors who use Chinese medicine for treatment or researchers who select candidates for clinical treatments or further high-quality clinical studies.

Gardenia jasminoides Enhances CDDP-Induced Apoptosis of Glioblastoma Cells via AKT/mTOR Pathway While Protecting Death of Astrocytes

Gliomas are the most observed primary brain tumor, of which glioblastoma multiform (GBM) shows the highest incidence. Radiotherapy with temozolomide is the standard therapeutic method, but because of side effects, search for alternative therapies is required. Gardenia jasminoides (GJ) is flavonoid abundant with beneficial effects on inflammation, metabolic diseases, and cancers. In this study, we investigated the synergistic combination of GJ and cisplatin (CDDP) in U87MG and U373MG GBM cells. GJ and CDDP both showed cytotoxicity in U87MG cells, however GJ did not affect viability of normal astrocytes while CDDP displayed high toxicity. Cytotoxic effect of GJ and CDDP was related in apoptosis when confirmed by Western blot assays on cleaved caspase-3, caspase-9, and PARP. Moreover, GJ and CDDP showed synergistic combination in cell death of GBM cells, which was further confirmed by Western blot assays of apoptosis factors and also flow cytometry of Annexin V. Analysis on autophagy factors showed that GJ/CDDP combination induced autophagy, and through inhibition of autophagy, we could confirm autophagy is crucial to cytotoxicity of GJ/CDDP in GBM cell lines. The autophagy-mediated apoptosis of GJ/CDDP was dependent on the AKT/mTOR pathway. Overall, our results suggest GJ/CDDP combination as an effective yet safe therapeutic approach to GBMs.

Gardenia jasminoides extract without crocin improved atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions via suppression of Th2-related cytokines in Dfe-induced NC/Nga mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a pruritic, chronic, relapsing inflammatory skin disease. Gardenia jasminoides extract (GJE) has been used as a traditional remedy for the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including AD. The specific effects of the extract components, which include crocin, geniposidic acid, and gardenoside, on inflammatory responses in AD are not entirely clear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We determined the effects of G. jasminoides extract with crocin removed (GJE-C) on AD-like skin lesions in Dermatophagoies farina crude extract (Dfe)-treated NC/Nga mice, a well-known AD mouse model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To prepare the mice, 150 μl of 4% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) was applied to the shaved dorsal skin or ear of NC/Nga mice 1 h before application of 100 mg Dfe. After 7 d, GJE-C was applied every day for 14 d. We performed behavior, histological, ELISA, assays to evaluate chemokines, cytokines, and skin barrier proteins in skin or serum samples from treated and untreated NC/Nga mice.

RESULTS

Topical application of GJE-C improved the severity scores of the AD-like skin lesions, frequency of scratching, and ear swelling in Dfe-treated NC/Nga mice similar to the complete GJE. In addition, GJE-C also reduced serum IgE and chemokine levels as well as the inflammatory response. Topical application of GJE-C also resulted in decreased infiltration of inflammatory cells, such as mast cells, via reduction of Th2 inflammatory mediators, including interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-13, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and chemokines, and increased skin barrier protein expression in Dfe-treated NC/Nga mice. The GJE components geniposidic acid and gardenoside inhibited the production of atopic-related chemokines in HaCaT cells, but inclusion of crocin dampened this inhibition of chemokine production.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, these findings indicate that GJE-C may improve AD-like lesions by inhibiting the Th2 inflammatory response and expression of chemokines while increasing the expression of skin barrier proteins. These data provide experimental evidence that GJE-C may harbor therapeutic potential for AD.

Network pharmacology identification of mechanisms of cerebral ischemia injury amelioration by Baicalin and Geniposide

Cerebral ischemia is one of the main causes of human neurological dysfunction. Baicalin (BC) and Geniposide (GP) and their combination (BC/GP) have an ameliorative effect on cerebral ischemia. Here, we use network pharmacology to predict the targets of BC, GP and BC/GP, then explored the protective mechanisms of the drugs on cerebral ischemia injury caused by abnormal activation of microglia cells in vitro. The results indicate that 45 targets related to cerebral ischemic injury were predicted by network pharmacology, and 26 cerebral ischemia related pathways were extracted by the KEGG database. In vitro lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated BV-2 cells to establish a model of inflammatory injury induced by microglia. The effects of BC, GP and BC/GP on the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-10, TGF-β and TNF-α were verified. Network pharmacology predicts the regulation of the 5-LOX/CysLTs inflammatory pathway. Finally, we found that GP and BC/GP exert anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects by regulating the polarization state of microglia and down-regulating 5-LOX/CysLTs, and has certain protective effects on nerve damage following cerebral ischemia.

Protective properties of geniposide against UV-B-induced photooxidative stress in human dermal fibroblasts

CONTEXT

Geniposide (genipin-1-O-β-d-glucoside) is a major bioactive ingredient in the fruits of gardenia [Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis (Rubiaceae)], a traditional herbal medicine in Asian countries.

OBJECTIVE

This work assesses the skin anti-photoaging potential of geniposide in human dermal fibroblasts under UV-B irradiation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The anti-photoaging property of geniposide, at varying concentrations (5, 12 and 30 μM) treated for 30 min prior to UV-B irradiation, was evaluated by analysing reactive oxygen species (ROS), promatrix metalloproteinase-2 (proMMP-2), glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and cellular viability.

RESULTS

Geniposide suppressed the ROS elevation under UV-B irradiation, which was revealed using three ROS-sensitive fluorescent dyes. The use of 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA), dihydroethidium (DHE) and dihydrorhodamine 123 (DHR-123) elicited the IC₅₀ values of 10.5, 9.8 and 21.0 μM, respectively. Geniposide attenuated proMMP-2 at activity and protein levels that were elevated under UV-B-irradiation. Geniposide at 5, 12 and 30 μM augmented the UV-B-reduced total GSH content to 1.9 ± 0.1-, 2.2 ± 0.2- and 4.1 ± 0.2-fold, respectively. Geniposide at 5, 12 and 30 μM upregulated total SOD activity to 2.3 ± 0.1-, 2.5 ± 0.3- and 3.3 ± 0.3-fold, respectively, under UV-B irradiation. The UV-B-reduced Nrf2 levels were also upregulated by geniposide treatment. Geniposide, at the concentrations used, was unable to interfere with cellular viabilities under UV-B irradiation.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

After the skin anti-photoaging potential of geniposide may be further verified, it can be utilized as a safer resource in the manufacture of effective anti-aging cosmetics.

Crocin Ameliorates Atopic Dermatitis Symptoms by down Regulation of Th2 Response via Blocking of NF-κB/STAT6 Signaling Pathways in Mice

Crocin, a major constituent of Gardenia jasminoides, is a natural colorant carotenoid compound that has been reported to have anti-inflammatory effects. This study investigated the therapeutic effects of crocin on mice with atopic dermatitis induced by Dermatophagoides farinae crude extract, which is a common environmental allergen in house dust that causes atopic dermatitis in humans. Crocin application ameliorated Dermatophagoides farinae crude extract-induced atopic dermatitis symptoms by inhibiting the dermatitis severity score, ear thickness, and serum immunoglobulin E levels in NC/Nga mice. The increases in epidermal thickness and dermal inflammatory cells (eosinophil and mast cells) infiltrations observed on the dorsal back skin of atopic dermatitis control mice were inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by topical application of crocin in atopic dermatitis treatment mice. Crocin inhibited the Dermatophagoides farinae crude extract-induced increase of thymus and activation-regulated chemokines, interleukin (IL)-4, and IL-13 on the dorsal skin of mice. Crocin also inhibited Dermatophagoides farinae crude extract-induced activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 6. These results show that crocin ameliorates atopic dermatitis symptoms by down regulation of the Th2 cells-mediated immune response via blocking of NF-κB/STAT6 signaling pathways.

Preclinical Pharmacokinetics of Scoparone, Geniposide and Rhein in an Herbal Medicine Using a Validated LC-MS/MS Method

The herbal formula Yin-Chen-Hao-Tang has been reported to have anti-fibrosis properties. The aim of this study was to reveal the pharmacokinetic characteristics of bioactive compounds in this herbal formula. A new high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and validated for simultaneous determination of scoparone, geniposide and rhein in rat plasma. A pharmaceutical herbal powder was administered to rats at doses of 1 g/kg and 3 g/kg orally. The method showed excellent linearity (r² > 0.999) and validation was successfully conducted for the pharmacokinetic study. The results show that the C_max values and areas under the curve of scoparone, geniposide and rhein were higher and not proportional to the dose in rat plasma, while the T_max and half-life values were consistent in the group that received 1 g/kg. The clearance of the higher dose (3 g/kg) did not decrease proportionally to that of the low dose. The results showed the nonlinear pharmacokinetic properties of scoparone, geniposide and rhein in Yin-Chen-Hao-Tang that suggested possible accumulation of bioactive compounds through oral administration. This pharmacokinetic study reveals that an increased dose of this herbal formula would largely increase the maximum concentration and bioavailability of scoparone, geniposide and rhein.

Crocin, a natural molecule with potentially beneficial effects against skin ageing

OBJECTIVE

Oxidative stress and low-grade chronic inflammation stand out as key features of physiological skin ageing. The aim of this study was to examine in normal human epidermal keratinocytes (NHEK) and human dermal fibroblasts (HDF) grown in vitro, the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of crocin, a carotenoid glycoside responsible for the colour of saffron. Moreover, considering the newly emerging field of skin glycobiology and the presence of two gentiobiosyl moieties in crocin, the effect of crocin on NHEK glycosylation pathways was for the first time investigated.

METHODS

The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of crocin were evaluated by in vitro assays of antioxidation activities, ELISA and microarray analysis. The effect of crocin on keratinocyte glycobiology was evaluated by proprietary GLYcoDiag lectin technologies and microarray analysis.

RESULTS

Crocin is endowed with antioxidant potential against reactive oxygen species, protects squalene against UVA-induced peroxidation and prevents the release of inflammatory mediators. The expression of NF-kB-related genes and glycosylation-related genes is modulated in the presence of crocin.

CONCLUSION

Results could designate this molecule as a promising skin ageing prevention cosmetic agent. Of note, some of these effects could be mediated by protein O-glycosylation and interaction of crocin with osidic receptors of keratinocytes.

Bleomycin Aggravates Atopic Dermatitis via Lung Inflammation in 2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene-Induced NC/Nga Mice

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease. Bleomycin (BLM) contributes to the induction of pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis in animals. Although skin and lung tissue inflammation is closely related in the pathogenesis of allergic diseases, a proper animal model for investigating the relationship between skin and lung inflammation is lacking. Therefore, we developed a mouse model of AD with relapsing dermatitis and pulmonary fibrosis caused by the administration of allergen and BLM. The present study determined whether lung injury caused by the bronchial application of BLM would exacerbate AD-like allergic inflammation induced by 2, 4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) in NC/Nga mice. NC/Nga mice treated with BLM and DNCB had increased severity of clinical symptoms and airway hyperresponsiveness as well as increased inflammatory cell infiltration and collagen deposition in the dorsal skin and lung. Compared to normal mice, interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α production in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were increased in NC/Nga mice treated with both DNCB and BLM and in animals treated with DNCB alone. Administration of BLM and DNCB increased the levels of IL-4 and IL-13 production in spleen cells and eotaxin-2 mRNA expression in dorsal skin, compared to NC/Nga mice treated with DNCB alone. The total cell numbers in axillary lymph node, bronchoalveolar lavage, and thymus were increased in DNCB-BLM mice compared to those in mice treated with DNCB alone. Administration of BLM and DNCB increased the numbers of cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4)+ T cells and CD11b+granulocyte-differentiation antigen-1 (Gr-1)+ cells among peripheral blood mononuclear cells, CD4+ cells in bronchoalveolar lavage, CD4+ and B220+CD23+ B cells in the axillary lymph node, and CD4+ cells in thymus, compared to DNCB-treated mice. The number of total, CD4+, and CD11b+Gr-1+ cells in the lung were increased in both DNCB and DNCB-BLM mice. These results demonstrate that BLM aggravates allergic skin inflammation and promotes airway hyperreactivity and lung inflammation when combined with DNCB in NC/Nga mice.

Identification of Steroidogenic Components Derived From Gardenia jasminoides Ellis Potentially Useful for Treating Postmenopausal Syndrome

Estrogen-stimulating principles have been demonstrated to relieve postmenopausal syndrome effectively. Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (GJE) is an herbal medicine possessing multiple pharmacological effects on human health with low toxicity. However, the therapeutic effects of GJE on the management of postmenopausal syndrome and its mechanism of action have not been fully elucidated. In this study, network pharmacology-based approaches were employed to examine steroidogenesis under the influence of GJE. In addition, the possibility of toxicity of GJE was ruled out and four probable active compounds were predicted. In parallel, a chromatographic fraction of GJE with estrogen-stimulating effect was identified and nine major compounds were isolated from this active fraction. Among the nine compounds, four of them were identified by network pharmacology, validating the use of network pharmacology to predict active compounds. Then the phenotypic approaches were utilized to verify that rutin, chlorogenic acid (CGA) and geniposidic acid (GA) exerted an estrogen-stimulating effect on ovarian granulosa cells. Furthermore, the results of target-based approaches indicated that rutin, CGA, and GA could up-regulate the FSHR-aromatase pathway in ovarian granulosa cells. The stimulation of estrogen production by rat ovarian granulosa cells under the influence of the three compounds underwent a decline when the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) was blocked by antibodies against the receptor, indicating the involvement of FSHR in the estradiol-stimulating activity of the three compounds. The effects of the three compounds on estrogen biosynthesis- related gene expression level were further confirmed by Western blot assay. Importantly, the MTT results showed that exposure of breast cancer cells to the three compounds resulted in reduction of cell viability, demonstrating the cytotoxicity of the three compounds. Collectively, rutin, chlorogenic acid and geniposidic acid may contribute to the therapeutic potential of GJE for the treatment of postmenopausal syndrome.

A Review on the Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmacokinetics and Toxicology of Geniposide, a Natural Product

Iridoid glycosides are natural products occurring widely in many herbal plants. Geniposide (C17H24O10) is a well-known one, present in nearly 40 species belonging to various families, especially the Rubiaceae. Along with this herbal component, dozens of its natural derivatives have also been isolated and characterized by researchers. Furthermore, a large body of pharmacological evidence has proved the various biological activities of geniposide, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-diabetic, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, cholagogic effects and so on. However, there have been some research articles on its toxicity in recent years. Therefore, this review paper aims to provide the researchers with a comprehensive profile of geniposide on its phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and toxicology in order to highlight some present issues and future perspectives as well as to help us develop and utilize this iridoid glycoside more efficiently and safely.

Herbal formula SC-E1 suppresses lipopolysaccharide-stimulated inflammatory responses through activation of Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway in RAW 264.7 macrophages

BACKGROUND

SC-E1 is a novel herbal formula consisting of five oriental medicinal herbs used frequently in traditional herbal medicine for the treatment of inflammatory diseases in Korea. This study examined the effects of SC-E1 on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages and the molecular mechanism involved.

METHODS

The cytotoxic effect of the SC-E1 extract was evaluated in RAW 264.7 cells by MTT assay. The effects of SC-E1 on the free radical scavenging and generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species were measured using DPPH and DCFH-DA, respectively. The effects of SC-E1 on the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, inflammatory mediators, and related products were determined by ELISA and western blotting. The molecular mechanism and the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) were examined by western blot analysis and immunocytochemistry.

RESULTS

SC-E1 exhibited strong anti-oxidant activity and inhibited LPS-induced NO secretion as well as iNOS expression and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, without affecting the cell viability. SC-E1 also suppressed the LPS-induced NF-κB activation and the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Moreover, SC-E1 induced heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression via the nuclear translocation of Nrf2. The inhibitory effects of SC-E1 on the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines were abrogated by treatment with SnPP, an HO-1 inhibitor.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that SC-E1 exerts its anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects through the inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK as well as Nrf2-mediated HO-1 induction in macrophages. These findings provide evidences for SC-E1 to be considered as a new prescription for treating inflammatory diseases.

Computational Investigation into the Interactions of Traditional Chinese Medicine Molecules of WenQingYin with GluR2

Docking and molecular dynamics simulations have been carried out to investigate the interaction of a traditional Chinese medicine, WenQingYin, with the glutamate receptor 2 (GluR2) subunit of the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor. Four representative drug components of WenQingYin, namely 2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-5,6,7-trihydroxy-4H-chromen-4-one (PHF), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoic acid (HMB), 4-(2,3-dihydroxy-3-methylbutoxy)-7H-furo[3,2-g]chromen-7-one (DHMBP) and methyl 7-formylcyclopenta[c]pyran-4-carboxylate (cerbinal), and their complexes with GluR2 were simulated. Our results show that PHF, HMB, and DHMBP formed a partial hydrogen bond with GluR2 in its ligand-binding domain. However, cerbinal was not stable in the ligand-binding domain of GluR2 and induced a significant change in the structure of GluR2. Three-dimensional plots represent the contact and movement situation of the traditional Chinese medicine molecules in the ligand-binding domain. The combined results of the docking and molecular dynamics simulations provide insight into the interaction between these traditional Chinese medicine molecules and proteins.

Chemical Constituents from the Flowers of Wild Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis

Four new iridoids, 2'-O-(E)-coumaroylshanzhiside (1), 6'-O-(E)-coumaroylshanzhiside (2), 8α-butylgardenoside B (3), 6α-methoxygenipin (4), and one new phenylpropanoid glucoside, 5-(3-hydroxypropyl)-2-methoxyphenyl β-d-glucopyranoside (5), together with sixteen known compounds, were isolated from the edible flowers of wild Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis. Their chemical structures were characterized by extensive spectroscopic techniques, including 1D- and 2D-NMR, HR-ESI-MS, and CD experiments. The absolute configurations of the new isolates' sugar moiety were assigned by HPLC analysis of the acid hydrolysates. Furthermore, the antioxidant activities of those isolates were preliminarily evaluated by DPPH scavenging experiment. And comparison of ¹ H-NMR spectra for the EtOH extract of G. jasminoides J.Ellis, gardenoside B and geniposide revealed that the flowers of this plant have a considerable content of gardenoside B instead of geniposide in the fruits, indicating different activities and applications in people's daily life.

Geniposide demonstrates anti-inflammatory and antiviral activity against pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus infection in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

Influenza A viruses (IAVs) have been a great threat to human health for centuries, without effective control. Geniposide, a main iridoid glycoside compound extracted from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit, possesses various biological activities including anti-inflammation and anti-virus.

METHODS

Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells were infected with pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus in vitro. Cytotoxicity and antiviral activity of geniposide were estimated by MTT assay. The influenza respiratory tract infection murine model was established by intranasal instillation of pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus. One day after infection, the mice were administered with geniposide (5, 10 or 20 mg/kg/day) or the neuraminidase inhibitor (NAI) peramivir (30 mg/kg/day). Body weight, survival time, viral titre and lung index of the mice were measured. The sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to examine levels of inflammatory cytokines.

RESULTS

The data showed that geniposide had little cytotoxicity on MDCK cells and protected them from pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus-induced cell injury. In the infected mice, geniposide treatment significantly restored the body weights, decreased the mortality, alleviated viral titres and virus-induced lung lesions. Geniposide substantially inhibited the virus-induced alveolar wall changes, alveolar haemorrhage and neutrophil-infiltration in lung tissues. Levels of inflammatory mediators, including tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin (IL)-4, IL-6 and IL-10 were also markedly altered after treatment with geniposide.

CONCLUSIONS

Our investigation suggested that geniposide effectively inhibited cell damage mediated by pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus and mitigated virus-induced acute inflammation.

In Vitro Selection of DNA Aptamers that Binds Geniposide

Geniposide is a key iridoid glycoside from Gardenia jasminoides fructus widely used in traditional Chinese herbal medicine. However, detection of this small molecule represents a significant challenge mostly due to the lack of specific molecular recognition elements. In this study, we have performed in vitro selection experiments to isolate DNA aptamers that can specifically bind geniposide. Using a stringent selection procedure, we have isolated DNA aptamers that can distinguish geniposide from genipin and glucose, two structural analogs of geniposide. Two top aptamers exhibit low micromolar binding affinity towards geniposide, but show significantly reduced affinity to genipin and glucose. These aptamers have the potential to be further developed into analytical tools for the detection of geniposide.

Geniposide reduces development of streptozotocin-induced diabetic nephropathy via regulating nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathways

Renal pathology was a commonly seen complication in patients with diabetes. Geniposide (GPO) was previously demonstrated to modulate glucose metabolism in diabetes. This study was to investigate effects of GPO in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats and its underlying mechanism. Renal function in diabetic rats was evaluated by levels of serum creatinine (Scr), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and urinary albumin. Renal inflammation was appraised by inflammatory cells infiltration and pro-inflammatory cytokines production. Renal monocytes, T lymphocytes infiltration, and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) expression were quantitated by immunohistochemistry. Moreover, renal nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) was assayed by Western blotting. Diabetic rats showed renal dysfunction as evidenced by increased levels of Scr, BUN, urinary albumin, and elevator renal index. Histological examination revealed significant glomerular basement membrane (GBM) thickening. However, GPO notably improved renal function and diabetes-induced GBM changes. Additionally, diabetic rats showed noteworthy renal inflammation,as reflected by enhancement of monocytes and T lymphocytes infiltration, increased expression of ICAM-1, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1 (IL-1), and IL-6. Interestingly, the level of monocytes infiltration positively correlated with the severity of GBM. Further study indicated diabetic rats displayed increased activation of NF-κB, indicated by increased expression of NF-κB p65, IKKα, and p-IκBα in renal tissue. However, all the changes in renal inflammation and NF-κB pathway were obviously reversed in GPO-treated diabetic rats. Our works indicate GPO ameliorates structural and functional abnormalities of kidney in diabetic rats, which is associated with its suppression of NF-κB-mediated inflammatory response.

The combination of Artemisia princeps Pamp, Leonurus japonicas Houtt, and Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit attenuates the exacerbation of energy, lipid, and glucose by increasing hepatic PGC-1α expression in estrogen-deficient rats

Background

Artemisia princeps Pamp (APP), Leonurus japonicas Houtt (LJH), and Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit (GJE) have been traditionally used in East Asia to treat women’s diseases related to reproductive system. They may attenuate the deterioration of energy, lipid, glucose and bone metabolism by estrogen deficiency. The present study explored the combination of APP, LJH, and GJE to overcome the symptoms of estrogen deficiency and the mechanism was explored.

Methods

Ovariectomized (OVX) rats were divided into five groups and fed high-fat diets supplemented with 2 % dextrin (control), 2 % APP, 2 % APP + LJH (15:5), APP + LJH + GJE (10:5:5) or 17β-estradiol (30 μg/kg bw/day) for 8 weeks. After 8 weeks of their consumption, energy, lipid, glucose and bone metabolisms were investigated and hepatic insulin signaling and fatty acid metabolism were determined.

Results

APP + LJH + GJE, but not APP itself, improved energy metabolism and attenuated a decrease in energy expenditure by the same amount as estrogen. Moreover, APP + LJH + GJE reduced visceral fat and intramuscular fat and increased lean body mass measured by DEXA by as much as the positive-control. APP itself suppressed increased LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels in OVX rats and APP + LJH + GJE alleviated dyslipidemia in OVX rats. Overnight-fasted serum insulin levels and HOMA-IR were reduced in the descending order of APP, APP + LJH, APP + LJH + GJE, positive-control in OVX rats. APP and APP + LJH elevated insulin secretion in the 1st part of OGTT to decrease serum glucose levels while APP + LJH + GJE reduced serum glucose levels without increasing serum insulin levels during OGTT. APP + LJH + GJE decreased insulin resistance during ITT in OVX rats more than the positive-control. The APP + LJH + GJE group exhibited increased hepatic peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α expression, which increased the number of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation and decreased fatty acid synthesis. Hepatic insulin signaling (pAkt and pGSK-1β) was also potentiated to reduce phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase proteins.

Conclusion

The combination of APP + LJH + GJE attenuated various menopausal symptoms in OVX rats. Thus, it may have potential as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of postmenopausal symptoms.