Changes in carbohydrate fraction during dehydration process of common legumes

Chickpea: Its Origin, Distribution, Nutrition, Benefits, Breeding, and Symbiotic Relationship with Mesorhizobium Species

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), encompassing the desi and kabuli varieties, is a beloved pulse crop globally. Its cultivation spans over fifty countries, from the Indian subcontinent and southern Europe to the Middle East, North Africa, the Americas, Australia, and China. With a rich composition of carbohydrates and protein, constituting 80% of its dry seed mass, chickpea is also touted for its numerous health benefits, earning it the title of a 'functional food'. In the past two decades, research has extensively explored the rhizobial diversity associated with chickpea and its breeding in various countries across Europe, Asia, and Oceania, aiming to understand its impact on the sustainable yield and quality of chickpea crops. To date, four notable species of Mesorhizobium-M. ciceri, M. mediterraneum, M. muleiense, and M. wenxiniae-have been reported, originally isolated from chickpea root nodules. Other species, such as M. amorphae, M. loti, M. tianshanense, M. oportunistum, M. abyssinicae, and M. shonense, have been identified as potential symbionts of chickpea, possibly acquiring symbiotic genes through lateral gene transfer. While M. ciceri and M. mediterraneum are widely distributed and studied across chickpea-growing regions, they remain absent in China, where M. muleiense and M. wenxiniae are the sole rhizobial species associated with chickpea. The geographic distribution of chickpea rhizobia is believed to be influenced by factors such as genetic characteristics, competitiveness, evolutionary adaptation to local soil conditions, and compatibility with native soil microbes. Inoculating chickpea with suitable rhizobial strains is crucial when introducing the crop to new regions lacking indigenous chickpea rhizobia. The introduction of a novel chickpea variety, coupled with the effective use of rhizobia for inoculation, offers the potential not only to boost the yield and seed quality of chickpeas, but also to enhance crop productivity within rotation and intercropped systems involving chickpea and other crops. Consequently, this advancement holds the promise to drive forward the cause of sustainable agriculture on a global scale.

Nutritional composition, health benefits and bio-active compounds of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), an annual plant of the family Fabaceae is mainly grown in semiarid and temperate regions. Among pulses, cultivated worldwide chickpeas are considered an inexpensive and rich source of protein. Chickpea is a good source of protein and carbohydrate, fiber, and important source of essential minerals and vitamins. The quality of protein is better among other pulses. Consumption of chickpeas is related to beneficial health outcomes. Dietary peptides from the protein of chickpeas gaining more attention. Peptides can be obtained through acid, alkali, and enzymatic hydrolysis. Among all these, enzymatic hydrolysis is considered safe. Various enzymes are used for the production of peptides, i.e., flavorzyme, chymotrypsin, pepsin, alcalase, papain, and trypsin either alone or in combinations. Chickpea hydrolysate and peptides have various bioactivity including angiotensin 1-converting enzyme inhibition, digestive diseases, hypocholesterolemic, CVD, antioxidant activity, type 2 diabetes, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticarcinogenic activity. This review summarizes the nutritional composition and bioactivity of hydrolysate and peptides obtained from chickpea protein. The literature shows that chickpea peptides and hydrolysate have various functional activities. But due to the limited research and technology, the sequences of peptides are unknown, due to which it is difficult to conduct the mechanism studies that how these peptides interact. Therefore, emphasis must be given to the optimization of the production of chickpea bioactive peptides, in vivo studies of chickpea bioactivity, and conducting human study trials to check the bioactivity of these peptides and hydrolysate.

The Metabolic Profile of Young, Watered Chickpea Plants Can Be Used as a Biomarker to Predict Seed Number under Terminal Drought

Chickpea is the second-most-cultivated legume globally, with India and Australia being the two largest producers. In both of these locations, the crop is sown on residual summer soil moisture and left to grow on progressively depleting water content, finally maturing under terminal drought conditions. The metabolic profile of plants is commonly, correlatively associated with performance or stress responses, e.g., the accumulation of osmoprotective metabolites during cold stress. In animals and humans, metabolites are also prognostically used to predict the likelihood of an event (usually a disease) before it occurs, e.g., blood cholesterol and heart disease. We sought to discover metabolic biomarkers in chickpea that could be used to predict grain yield traits under terminal drought, from the leaf tissue of young, watered, healthy plants. The metabolic profile (GC-MS and enzyme assays) of field-grown chickpea leaves was analysed over two growing seasons, and then predictive modelling was applied to associate the most strongly correlated metabolites with the final seed number plant^-1. Pinitol (negatively), sucrose (negatively) and GABA (positively) were significantly correlated with seed number in both years of study. The feature selection algorithm of the model selected a larger range of metabolites including carbohydrates, sugar alcohols and GABA. The correlation between the predicted seed number and actual seed number was R² adj = 0.62, demonstrating that the metabolic profile could be used to predict a complex trait with a high degree of accuracy. A previously unknown association between D-pinitol and hundred-kernel weight was also discovered and may provide a single metabolic marker with which to predict large seeded chickpea varieties from new crosses. The use of metabolic biomarkers could be used by breeders to identify superior-performing genotypes before maturity is reached.

Raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs): role in seed vigor and longevity

Seed vigor and longevity are important agronomic attributes, as they are essentially associated with crop yield and thus the global economy. Seed longevity is a measure of seed viability and the most essential property in gene bank management since it affects regeneration of seed recycling. Reduced seed life or storability is a serious issue in seed storage since germplasm conservation and agricultural enhancement initiatives rely on it. The irreversible and ongoing process of seed deterioration comprises a complex gene regulatory network and altered metabolism that results in membrane damage, DNA integrity loss, mitochondrial dysregulation, protein damage, and disrupted antioxidative machinery. Carbohydrates and/or sugars, primarily raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs), have emerged as feasible components for boosting or increasing seed vigor and longevity in recent years. RFOs are known to perform diverse functions in plants, including abiotic and biotic stress tolerance, besides being involved in regulating seed germination, desiccation tolerance, vigor, and longevity. We emphasized and analyzed the potential impact of RFOs on seed vigor and longevity in this review. Here, we comprehensively reviewed the molecular mechanisms involved in seed longevity, RFO metabolism, and how RFO content is critical and linked with seed vigor and longevity. Further molecular basis, biotechnological approaches, and CRISPR/Cas applications have been discussed briefly for the improvement of seed attributes and ultimately crop production. Likewise, we suggest advancements, challenges, and future possibilities in this area.

Genome-wide association mapping of seed oligosaccharides in chickpea

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is one of the major pulse crops, rich in protein, and widely consumed all over the world. Most legumes, including chickpeas, possess noticeable amounts of raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs) in their seeds. RFOs are seed oligosaccharides abundant in nature, which are non-digestible by humans and animals and cause flatulence and severe abdominal discomforts. So, this study aims to identify genetic factors associated with seed oligosaccharides in chickpea using the mini-core panel. We have quantified the RFOs (raffinose and stachyose), ciceritol, and sucrose contents in chickpea using high-performance liquid chromatography. A wide range of variations for the seed oligosaccharides was observed between the accessions: 0.16 to 15.13 mg g^-1 raffinose, 2.77 to 59.43 mg g^-1 stachyose, 4.36 to 90.65 mg g^-1 ciceritol, and 3.57 to 54.12 mg g^-1 for sucrose. Kabuli types showed desirable sugar profiles with high sucrose, whereas desi types had high concentrations RFOs. In total, 48 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified for all the targeted sugar types, and nine genes (Ca_06204, Ca_04353, and Ca_20828: Phosphatidylinositol N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase; Ca_17399 and Ca_22050: Remorin proteins; Ca_11152: Protein-serine/threonine phosphatase; Ca_10185, Ca_14209, and Ca_27229: UDP-glucose dehydrogenase) were identified as potential candidate genes for sugar metabolism and transport in chickpea. The accessions with low RFOs and high sucrose contents may be utilized in breeding specialty chickpeas. The identified candidate genes could be exploited in marker-assisted breeding, genomic selection, and genetic engineering to improve the sugar profiles in legumes and other crop species.

Chemical composition of kabuli and desi chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivars grown in Xinjiang, China

Chickpeas are a very important legume crop and have abundant protein, carbohydrate, lipid, fiber, isoflavone, and mineral contents. The chemical compositions of the four chickpea species (Muying-1, Keying-1, Desi-1, Desi-2) from Xinjiang, China, were analyzed, and 46 different flavonoids in Muying-1 were detected. The moisture content ranged from 7.64 ± 0.01 to 7.89 ± 0.02 g/100 g, the content of starch in the kabuli chickpeas was greater than that in the desi chickpeas, the total ash content ranged from 2.59 ± 0.05 to 2.69 ± 0.03 g/100 g and the vitamin B₁ content of the chickpeas ranged from 0.31 to 0.36 mg/100 g. The lipid content ranged from 6.35 to 9.35 g/100 g and the major fatty acids of chickpeas were linoleic, oleic, and palmitic acids. Both kabuli and desi chickpeas have a high content of unsaturated fatty acids (USFAs), Muying-1 and Desi-1 contained the highest level of linoleic acid, and Keying-1 had the highest oleic acid content. The protein level ranged from 19.79 ± 2.89 to 23.38 ± 0.30 g/100 g, and the main amino acids were aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and arginine acid. The four chickpea species had significant amounts of essential amino acids (EAAs). Forty-six varieties of flavonoids in Muying-1 were determined by ultra high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-QqQ-MS) analysis, and there were higher levels of conjugate flavonoids (55.95%) than free flavonoids (44.05%). Isoflavones were the most abundant flavonoids in Muying-1, and among the isoflavones, daidzin had the highest content, followed by biochanin A and genistin. Muying-1 was rich in daidzin, biochanin A, genistin, troxerutin, isorhamnetin, astilbin, L-epicatechin, astragalin, acacetin, hyperoside, and myricitrin. Information provided in the study will be helpful to further understand the chemical composition of chickpeas and be beneficial to the development of chickpeas.

Soaking beans for 12 h reduces split percent and cooking time regardless of type of water used for cooking

Beans are one of the most important cheap source of protein in developing countries. However, their utilisation in the diets of many people remains limited due to long cooking time, among others. Therefore, it is imperative to identify ways to enhance utilisation of beans. The aim of the current study was to assess the effects of soaking and cooking in different types of water (tap, borehole, acidulated- 1.0 percent citric acid and soda- 0.2 percent sodium bicarbonate) on cooking time (CT), split percentage (SP) and total soluble solids (TSS) in broth of different varieties of beans. Results show that soaking significantly reduced CT across eight varieties from an average CT of 109.5–84.6 min in tap water, 109.5–85.2 min in borehole water, 115.9–92.7 min in acidulated water and 82.0–51.2 min in soda water representing 22.7%, 22.1%, 20.0% and 37.6% reduction in CT, respectively. Soaking generally decreased SP and varietal differences were observed suggesting beans are less likely to break when soaking precede cooking. Although cooking in soda water significantly reduced CT, unfortunately, it increased SP. Acidulated water extended CT but reduced SP in almost all varieties. Soaking generally decreased TSS in broth from 7.0 to 6.7% in tap water, 6.1–5.8% in borehole water and 11.3–7.7% in soda water while it increased TSS in acidulated water from 18.2 to 20.6% across all the eight varieties which suggest reduction in leaching out of bean solids into cooking water which is consistent with reduced SP of soaked beans. While use of soda water reduced cooking time and therefore saved time and energy, its effect of increasing split percent may not be appealing to some consumers. This study has demonstrated that bean soaking significantly reduced cooking time and split percent and these can also be affected by type of cooking water.

Raffinose Family Oligosaccharides: Friend or Foe for Human and Plant Health?

Raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs) are widespread across the plant kingdom, and their concentrations are related to the environment, genotype, and harvest time. RFOs are known to carry out many functions in plants and humans. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive review of RFOs, including their beneficial and anti-nutritional properties. RFOs are considered anti-nutritional factors since they cause flatulence in humans and animals. Flatulence is the single most important factor that deters consumption and utilization of legumes in human and animal diets. In plants, RFOs have been reported to impart tolerance to heat, drought, cold, salinity, and disease resistance besides regulating seed germination, vigor, and longevity. In humans, RFOs have beneficial effects in the large intestine and have shown prebiotic potential by promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria reducing pathogens and putrefactive bacteria present in the colon. In addition to their prebiotic potential, RFOs have many other biological functions in humans and animals, such as anti-allergic, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, prevention of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and cryoprotection. The wide-ranging applications of RFOs make them useful in food, feed, cosmetics, health, pharmaceuticals, and plant stress tolerance; therefore, we review the composition and diversity of RFOs, describe the metabolism and genetics of RFOs, evaluate their role in plant and human health, with a primary focus in grain legumes.

Nutritional constituent and health benefits of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.): A review

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), an annual plant of the Fabaceae family, is mainly grown in temperate and semiarid regions. Its biological activity and beneficial contribution to human health have been scientifically confirmed as an essential source of nutritional components. The objective of this review was to summarize and update latest available scientific data and information, on bioactive components in chickpea, bio-activities, and molecular mechanisms, which has mainly focused on the detection of relevant biochemical indicators, the regulation of signaling pathways, essential genes and proteins. The studies have shown that chickpea have significant multifunctional activities, which are closely related to the functionally active small molecule peptides and phytochemicals of chickpea. Significantly, numerous studies have only addressed the functional activity and mechanisms of single active components of chickpea, however, overlooking the synergy and antagonism between chickpea components, changes of functional active components in different processing methods, as well as the active form of the substances after human digestion and metabolism. Additionally, due to limitations in research methods and techniques, the structure of most functional active substances have not been determined, which makes it difficult to conduct interaction mechanism studies. Consequently, the significant bio-activity of the functional components of chickpea, synergistic and antagonistic effects and activity differences between bioactive components should be further studied.

A new trend among plant-based food ingredients in food processing technology: Aquafaba

In the new century, the most fundamental problem on a global scale is hunger and poverty reduction is one of the primary goals set by the United Nations. Currently, it is necessary to increase agricultural activities and to evaluate all agricultural products rich in nutrients without loss in order to feed the hungry population in the world. Considering that one of the most important causes of hunger in the world is inadequate access to protein content, legumes are one of the most valuable nutritional resources. In order to ensure the sustainability of legumes, alternative new ways of recycling their wastes are sought based on these multiple functions. For this purpose, recycling legume cooking waters to be used as food raw materials in various processes means reducing food waste. Recovery of nutritional components in legumes is also beneficial in vegan and vegetarian diets. In this review study, the importance of legumes in terms of global needs, their importance in terms of nutrition, the methods of obtaining the protein content of legumes, the functional properties of these proteins in the field of food processing, the gains of the evaluation and recovery of legume cooking water (Aquafaba), especially waste, were discussed.

Autoclaving and extrusion improve the functional properties and chemical composition of black bean carbohydrate extracts

Common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are rich in starch with a high content of amylose, which is associated with the production of retrograded and pregelatinized starch through thermal treatments. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the composition, morphology, thermal, functional, and physicochemical properties of carbohydrate extracts (CE) obtained from autoclaved (100 and 121 °C) and extruded (90, 105, and 120 °C) black beans. After evaluation of the functional properties, the CE from autoclaved beans at 100 °C for 30 min and 121 °C for 15 min 2×, and extruded beans at 120 °C and 10 rpm, were selected to continue the remaining analysis. Autoclaving treatments at 100 °C for 30 min and 121 °C for 15 min 2× showed a reduction of resistant starch by 14.4% and 26.6%, respectively, compared to dehulled raw bean CE. Meanwhile, extrusion showed a reduction in resistant starch of 54.2%. Autoclaving and extrusion treatments also decreased the dietary fiber content. Extrusion reduced almost entirely the content of α-galactooligosaccharides, in comparison to dehulled raw bean CE. The results showed differences in color and granule morphology. The onset, peak, and conclusion temperatures, transition temperature range, and enthalpy of autoclaved and extruded bean CE were lower than dehulled raw bean CE. The CE from autoclaved and extruded beans contain retrograded and pregelatinized starch, which could be incorporated in food products as a thickening agent for puddings, sauces, creams, or dairy products. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Thermally treated black bean carbohydrate extracts are rich in starch, fiber, and protein. Because these extracts are already cooked, they can be added to products that do not require a thermal process such as puddings, sauces, creams, or dairy products, acting as a thickening agent.

Determination of Soluble Mono, Di, and Oligosaccharide Content in 23 Dry Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Beans provide a rich source of plant-based proteins and carbohydrates. It is well documented in the literature that the raffinose family of oligosaccharides (RFOs: raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose) is linked with flatulence issues. In this study, the soluble sugar content of 23 dry beans was investigated using a newly developed and validated analytical method with high-performance anion-exchange chromatography coupled to an amperometric pulse detection. All seven sugars (galactose, glucose, fructose, sucrose, raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose) showed good linearity (r² ≥ 0.99) between 0.156 and 20 μg/mL. The limit of detection and quantification were determined as 0.01-0.11 μg/mL and 0.04-0.32 μg/mL, respectively. Significant variations in the profiles and concentrations of individual and total sugars were observed in 23 dry beans. Sucrose and stachyose were the two prominent soluble sugars combinedly representing an average of 86% of the total soluble sugars. Yellow split beans, large lima, and black eyed peas contained higher amounts of total soluble sugars (79.8-83.6 mg/g), whereas lower amounts were observed in speckled butter peas and lentils (53.6-56.6 mg/g). Garbanzo beans contained maximum levels of mono and disaccharides (MD), and yellow split beans showed the highest levels of RFOs. Based on the hierarchical cluster analysis of the total soluble sugars (TS), MD, RFOs, and MD/RFOs ratio, 23 beans can be classified into five groups. The average TS content and the MD/RFOs ratios of the five groups were determined as group 1 (TS = 55.1 mg/g and MD/RFOs = 0.30), group 2 (TS = 77.6 mg/g and MD/RFOs = 0.31), group 3 (TS = 78.3 mg/g and MD/RFOs = 0.51), group 4 (TS = 59.1 mg/g and MD/RFOs = 1.06), and group 5 (TS = 68.5 mg/g and MD/RFOs = 0.62). This information is useful for researchers, food industries, and consumers that are looking for plant-based protein source as an alternative to animal proteins with reduced flatulence problems.

Flours from Swedish pulses: Effects of treatment on functional properties and nutrient content

Despite the high nutritional profile in pulses, pulse consumption in Sweden is still low. However, the recent increase in consumption of sustainable and locally produced food in Sweden is driving demand for a versatile, functional pulse-based ingredient that can be incorporated into different food products. This study assessed different treatments (boiling, roasting, and germination) when preparing flour from domestically grown pulses (yellow pea, gray pea, faba bean, and white bean). Functional properties (water and oil absorption capacity, emulsion and foaming properties, and gelation concentration) of the flours produced following different treatments and their nutrient content (total dietary fiber, total choline, and folate content) were determined. Depending on pulse type, all treatments increased (p < .001) water absorption capacity up to threefold and gelation concentration up to twofold, whereas emulsion activity and foaming capacity decreased by 3%-33% and 5%-19%, respectively, compared with flour made from raw pulses. All treatments also had a significant effect (p < .001) on nutrient content. Total dietary fiber increased (p < .02) by 11%-33%, depending on treatment and pulse type. Boiling decreased (p < .001) total choline and folate content in all pulse flours, by 17%-27% and 15%-32%, respectively. Germination doubled folate content (p < .001) in flour from both pea types compared with flour from the raw peas. In conclusion, treated pulse flours could be useful in food applications such as coating batter, dressings, beverages, or bakery goods, to improve the content of fiber, total choline, and folate.

Coffee parchment as a new dietary fiber ingredient: Functional and physiological characterization

Coffee parchment was evaluated as a potential dietary fiber ingredient. For this purpose, dietary fiber was extracted by enzymatic and non-enzymatic methods and its physicochemical and in vitro hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic properties were investigated. Results revealed that coffee parchment (flakes and flour) was a good source of insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), mainly composed by xylans (35%), lignin (32%), and cellulose (12%). From results, the IDF extraction seemed not to be required the use of enzymes. Coffee parchment did not stand out by its content of phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity, but milling process improved them. Due to its physical structure, coffee parchment flakes exhibited high oil holding capacity (3.8 mg L^-1), gelation capacity (8%) besides hydration properties, including water holding (3.4 mg L^-1), absorption (3.0 mg L^-1) and swelling (14 mg L^-1) capacities. Its flour and water-insoluble residue showed lower capacities. Nevertheless, these coffee parchment samples presented effective in vitro hypoglycemic properties, showing high glucose adsorption capacity (50-200 mmol L^-1), and capacity to decrease its diffusion (13%), and to inhibit α-amylase (52%) that led to lower starch digestibility (until 46%); and also, outstanding in vitro hypolipidemic properties, as inhibition of pancreatic lipase (43%) and binding of cholesterol and sodium cholate (16.6 and 35.3 mg g^-1, respectively). These results provide valuable information for the potential use of coffee parchment as new food DF ingredient.

Soaking and cooking modify the alpha-galacto-oligosaccharide and dietary fibre content in five Mediterranean legumes

The effects of soaking and cooking on soluble sugars, alpha-galacto-oligosaccharides (α-GOS) and soluble dietary fibres (SDF) and insoluble dietary fibres (IDF) were assessed in five legumes (lentil, chickpea, fenugreek, faba bean and Egyptian faba bean). In raw seeds, total α-GOS content ranged from 2500 mg/100 g (chickpea) to over 4000 mg/100 g (fenugreek). Stachyose was predominant in fenugreek, lentil and chickpea, whereas verbascose was the main α-GOS in faba bean and Egyptian faba bean. IDF represented 69-87% of the total dietary fibres in all studied legumes, while SDF content varied noticeably. During soaking, total α-GOS content decreased between 10% (lentil and faba bean) and 40% (chickpea). In fenugreek, soaking reduced IDF and increased SDF concentration, possibly due to partial IDF solubilisation from the cell wall. Cooking further decreased α-GOS and increased total dietary fibre content. The different behaviours of these five legumes during processing illustrate the high biodiversity within legume species.

Genetic Architecture of Dietary Fiber and Oligosaccharide Content in a Middle American Panel of Edible Dry Bean

Common bean ( L.) is the most consumed edible grain legume worldwide and contains a wide range of nutrients for human health including dietary fiber. Diets high in beans are associated with lower rates of chronic diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes, and the content of dietary fibers varies among different market classes of dry bean. In this study, we evaluated the dietary fiber content in a Middle American diversity panel (MDP) of common bean and evaluated the genetic architecture of the various dietary fiber components. The dietary fiber components included insoluble and soluble dietary fibers as well as the antinutritional raffinose family of oligosaccharides (RFOs; raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose). All variables measured differed among market classes and entries. Colored bean seeds had higher levels of insoluble dietary fibers with the black market class showing also the highest raffinose and stachyose content. Cultivars and lines released since 1997 had higher insoluble dietary fibers and RFO content in race Durango. Higher levels of RFOs were also observed in cultivars with type II growth habit that was a recent breeding target in Durango race germplasm. Candidate genes for dietary fiber traits, especially homologs to two main genes in the RFO biosynthesis pathway, were identified. The knowledge of diversity of dietary fibers in the MDP accompanied with the identification of candidate genes could effectively improve dietary fiber components in common bean.

Nutritional properties of green gram germinated in mineral fortified soak water: II. Effect of cooking on total and bioaccessible nutrients and bioactive components

The effect of pressure and microwave cooking on total and bioaccessible nutrients and bioactive components in whole and dehulled green gram (GG) germinated in mineral fortified soak water was studied. Whole GG was soaked in water fortified with iron (100 or 200 mg/100 ml) or zinc (50 or 100 mg/100 ml), germinated, cooked by two methods and analyzed. Results showed that method of cooking did not affect the nutrient composition of whole or dehulled grains, however, phytic acid and dietary fiber were higher in microwave cooked samples. Minor differences were noted in total and percent available nutrients in differently cooked samples, significance being observed only for starch, protein and zinc in few samples. Significant differences were observed among variations, wherein the mineral fortified samples had a higher level of bioaccessibility compared to non-fortified samples. Cooking reduced the content of bioactive components in germinated GG, though bioaccessibility was higher. Comparison between raw and cooked grains showed that starch digestibility increased on cooking, though protein digestibility was not affected significantly. Bioactive components were also lower in cooked samples in comparison to the raw counterparts. In conclusion, the cooking methods did not affect the nutrient composition of green gram germinated in mineral fortified soak water, though available nutrients were higher in cooked legumes.

In situ synthesis of exopolysaccharides by Leuconostoc spp. and Weissella spp. and their rheological impacts in fava bean flour

Fava bean flour is regarded as a potential plant-based protein source, but the addition of it at high concentration is restricted by its poor texture-improving ability and by anti-nutritional factors (ANF). Exopolysaccharides (EPS) produced by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are regarded as good texture modifiers. In this study, fava bean flour was fermented with Leuconostoc spp. and Weissella spp. with or without sucrose addition, in order to evaluate their potential in EPS production. The contents of free sugars, organic acids, mannitol and EPS in all fermented fava bean doughs were measured. Rheological properties of sucrose-enriched doughs, including viscosity flow curves, hysteresis loop and dynamic oscillatory sweep curves, were measured after fermentation. As one of the ANF, the degradation of raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFO) was also studied by analyzing RFO profiles of different doughs. Quantification of EPS revealed the potential of Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides DSM 20193 in EPS production, and the rheological analysis showed that the polymers produced by this strain has the highest thickening and gelling capability. Furthermore, the viscous fava bean doughs containing plant proteins and synthesized in situ EPS may have a potential application in the food industry and fulfill consumers' increasing demands for "clean labels" and plant-originated food materials.

Assessment of Maillard reaction evolution, prebiotic carbohydrates, antioxidant activity and α-amylase inhibition in pulse flours

In this paper, the quality of bean, chickpea, fava beans, lentil and pea flours from Algeria has been evaluated. Maillard reaction (MR) indicators, modifications in the carbohydrate and protein fractions, antioxidant activity and α-amylase inhibitor of raw, toasted and stored samples were evaluated. Fava beans, beans and peas showed higher content of raffinose family oligosaccharides while chickpeas and lentils showed higher polyol content. Toasting and storage caused slightly change in pulse quality; MR showed slight losses of lysine but increased antioxidant activity. Moreover, inhibition of α-amylase was slightly augmented during processing; this could increase the undigested carbohydrates that reach the colon, modulating the glycemic response. These results point out the suitability of these flours for preparing high-quality foodstuffs intended for a wide spectrum of the population, including hyperglycemic and gluten intolerant individuals.

Molecular cloning of AtRS4, a seed specific multifunctional RFO synthase/galactosylhydrolase in Arabidopsis thaliana

Stachyose is among the raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs) one of the major water-soluble carbohydrates next to sucrose in seeds of a number of plant species. Especially in leguminous seeds, e.g. chickpea, stachyose is reported as the major component. In contrast to their ambiguous potential as essential source of carbon for germination, RFOs are indigestible for humans and can contribute to diverse abdominal disorders. In the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana, six putative raffinose synthase genes are reported, whereas little is known about these putative raffinose synthases and their biochemical characteristics or their contribution to the RFO physiology in A. thaliana. In this paper, we report on the molecular cloning, functional expression in Escherichia coli and purification of recombinant AtRS4 from A. thaliana and the biochemical characterisation of the putative stachyose synthase (AtSTS, At4g01970) as a raffinose and high affinity stachyose synthase (Km for raffinose 259.2 ± 21.15 μM) as well as stachyose and galactinol specific galactosylhydrolase. A T-DNA insertional mutant in the AtRS4 gene was isolated. Only semi-quantitative PCR from WT siliques showed a specific transcriptional AtRS4 PCR product. Metabolite measurements in seeds of ΔAtRS4 mutant plants revealed a total loss of stachyose in ΔAtRS4 mutant seeds. We conclude that AtRS4 is the only stachyose synthase in the genome of A. thaliana that AtRS4 represents a key regulation mechanism in the RFO physiology of A. thaliana due to its multifunctional enzyme activity and that AtRS4 is possibly the second seed specific raffinose synthase beside AtRS5, which is responsible for Raf accumulation under abiotic stress.

A re-evaluation of life-long severe galactose restriction for the nutrition management of classic galactosemia

The galactose-restricted diet is life-saving for infants with classic galactosemia. However, the benefit and extent of dietary galactose restriction required after infancy remain unclear and variation exists in practice. There is a need for evidence-based recommendations to better standardize treatment for this disorder. This paper reviews the association between diet treatment and outcomes in classic galactosemia and evaluates the contribution of food sources of free galactose in the diet. Recommendations include allowing all fruits, vegetables, legumes, soy products that are not fermented, various aged cheeses and foods containing caseinates. Further research directions are discussed.

Galactose content of legumes, caseinates, and some hard cheeses: implications for diet treatment of classic galactosemia

There are inconsistent reports on the lactose and/or galactose content of some foods traditionally restricted from the diet for classic galactosemia. Therefore, samples of cheeses, caseinates, and canned black, pinto, kidney, and garbanzo beans were analyzed for free galactose content using HPLC with refractive index or pulsed amperometric detection. Galactose concentrations in several hard and aged cheeses and three mild/medium Cheddars, produced by smaller local dairies, was <10 mg/100 g sample compared to 55.4 mg/100 g sample in four sharp Cheddars produced by a multinational producer. Galactose in sodium and calcium caseinate ranged from undetectable to 95.5 mg/100 g sample. Free galactose level in garbanzo beans was lower than previously reported at 24.6 mg/100 g sample; black beans contained 5.3 mg/100 g, and free galactose was not detected in red kidney or pinto beans. These data provide a basis for recommending inclusion of legumes, caseinate-containing foods, and some aged hard cheeses that had been previously restricted in the diet for individuals with galactosemia.

Changes due to cooking and sterilization in low molecular weight carbohydrates in immature seeds of five cultivars of common bean

Immature seeds of five bean cultivars (flageolet-type and those intended for dry-seed production) were assessed for changes in water-soluble carbohydrates including raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs) due to boiling, sterilization, and storage of the sterilized product. About 100 g fresh weight of edible portion of fresh bean seeds contained 2449.3-3182.6 mg total soluble sugars, of which RFOs comprised 44-49%. The highest amounts of these compounds were found in the seeds of the cultivars Laponia and Mona. The dominant oligosaccharide was stachyose. Boiling fresh seeds to consumption consistency reduced total soluble sugars and RFOs: average values were 57% and 55%, respectively. Sterilization in cans resulted in 65% reductions of both total soluble sugars and RFOs. In general, there were no changes in the content of soluble sugars in canned and sterilized products stored for 12 months.

Rapid characterisation and comparison of saponin profiles in the seeds of Korean Leguminous species using ultra performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detector and electrospray ionisation/mass spectrometry (UPLC-PDA-ESI/MS) analysis

The present work was reported on investigation of saponin profiles in nine different legume seeds, including soybean, adzuki bean, cowpea, common bean, scarlet runner bean, lentil, chick pea, hyacinth bean, and broad bean using ultra performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detector and electrospray ionisation/mass spectrometry (UPLC-PDA-ESI/MS) technique. A total of twenty saponins were characterised under rapid and simple conditions within 15min by the 80% methanol extracts of all species. Their chemical structures were elucidated as soyasaponin Ab (1), soyasaponin Ba (2), soyasaponin Bb (3), soyasaponin Bc (4), soyasaponin Bd (5), soyasaponin αg (6), soyasaponin βg (7), soyasaponin βa (8), soyasaponin γg (9), soyasaponin γa (10), azukisaponin VI (11), azukisaponin IV (12), azukisaponin II (13), AzII (14), AzIV (15), lablaboside E (16), lablaboside F (17), lablaboside D (18), chikusetusaponin IVa (19), and lablab saponin I (20). The individual and total saponin compositions exhibited remarkable differences in all legume seeds. In particular, soyasaponin βa (8) was detected the predominant composition in soybean, cowpea, and lentil with various concentrations. Interestingly, soybean, adzuki bean, common bean, and scarlet runner bean had high saponin contents, while chick pea and broad bean showed low contents.

Genotype and growing environment interaction shows a positive correlation between substrates of raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFO) biosynthesis and their accumulation in chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.) seeds

To develop genetic improvement strategies to modulate raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFO) concentration in chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.) seeds, RFO and their precursor concentrations were analyzed in 171 chickpea genotypes from diverse geographical origins. The genotypes were grown in replicated trials over two years in the field (Patancheru, India) and in the greenhouse (Saskatoon, Canada). Analysis of variance revealed a significant impact of genotype, environment, and their interaction on RFO concentration in chickpea seeds. Total RFO concentration ranged from 1.58 to 5.31 mmol/100 g and from 2.11 to 5.83 mmol/100 g in desi and kabuli genotypes, respectively. Sucrose (0.60-3.59 g/100 g) and stachyose (0.18-2.38 g/100 g) were distinguished as the major soluble sugar and RFO, respectively. Correlation analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between substrate and product concentration in RFO biosynthesis. In chickpea seeds, raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose showed a moderate broad sense heritability (0.25-0.56), suggesting the use of a multilocation trials based approach in chickpea seed quality improvement programs.

Nutritional quality and health benefits of chickpea (Cicer arietinumL.): a review

Chickpea (Cicer arietinumL.) is an important pulse crop grown and consumed all over the world, especially in the Afro-Asian countries. It is a good source of carbohydrates and protein, and protein quality is considered to be better than other pulses. Chickpea has significant amounts of all the essential amino acids except sulphur-containing amino acids, which can be complemented by adding cereals to the daily diet. Starch is the major storage carbohydrate followed by dietary fibre, oligosaccharides and simple sugars such as glucose and sucrose. Although lipids are present in low amounts, chickpea is rich in nutritionally important unsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic and oleic acids. β-Sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol are important sterols present in chickpea oil. Ca, Mg, P and, especially, K are also present in chickpea seeds. Chickpea is a good source of important vitamins such as riboflavin, niacin, thiamin, folate and the vitamin A precursor β-carotene. As with other pulses, chickpea seeds also contain anti-nutritional factors which can be reduced or eliminated by different cooking techniques. Chickpea has several potential health benefits, and, in combination with other pulses and cereals, it could have beneficial effects on some of the important human diseases such as CVD, type 2 diabetes, digestive diseases and some cancers. Overall, chickpea is an important pulse crop with a diverse array of potential nutritional and health benefits.

Influence of dehydration process in Castellano chickpea: changes in bioactive carbohydrates and functional properties

Changes in bioactive carbohydrates, functional, and microstructural characteristics that occurred in chickpea under soaking, cooking, and industrial dehydration processing were evaluated. Raw chickpea exhibited important levels of raffinose family of oligosaccharides (RFOs), resistant starch (RS) and total dietary fibre (TDF), being insoluble dietary fibre (IDF) the main fraction (94%). The dehydration process increased RFOs (43%), RS (47%) and soluble dietary fiber (SDF) (59%) levels significantly. In addition, a noticeable increase in both fibre fractions was observed, being higher in soluble fibre in (SDF) (59%). The minimum nitrogen solubility of raw flours was at pH 4, and a high degree of protein insolubilization (80%) was observed in dehydrated flours. The raw and processed flours exhibited low oil-holding capacities (1.10 mg/ml), and did not show any change by thermal processing, whereas water-holding capacities rose to 5.50 mg/ml of sample. Cooking and industrial dehydration process reduced emulsifying activity and foaming capacity of chickpea flour. The microstructural observations were consistent with the chemical results. Thus, the significant occurrence of these bioactive carbohydrate compounds along with the interesting functional properties of the dehydrated flours could be considered useful as functional ingredients for food formulation.

Characterisation of the arabinose-rich carbohydrate composition of immature and mature marama beans (Tylosema esculentum)

Marama bean (Tylosema esculentum) is an important component of the diet around the Kalahari Desert in Southern Africa where this drought resistant plant can grow. The marama bean contains roughly 1/3 proteins, 1/3 lipids and 1/3 carbohydrates, but despite its potential as dietary supplement little is known about the carbohydrate fraction. In this study the carbohydrate fraction of "immature" and "mature" marama seeds are characterised. The study shows that the marama bean contains negligible amounts of starch and soluble sugars, both far less than 1%. The cell wall is characterised by a high arabinose content and a high resistance to extraction as even a 6M NaOH extraction was insufficient to extract considerable amounts of the arabinose. The arabinose fraction was characterised by arabinan-like linkages and recognised by the arabinan antibody LM6 and LM13 indicating that it is pectic arabinan. Two pools of pectin could be detected; a regular CDTA (1,2-diaminocyclohexane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid) or enzymatically extractable pectin fraction and a recalcitrant pectin fraction containing the majority of the arabinans, of which about 40% was unextractable using 6M NaOH. Additionally, a high content of mannose was observed, possibly from mannosylated storage proteins.

Phenolic profile and antioxidant capacity of chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) as affected by a dehydration process

This study presents the effects of soaking, cooking and industrial dehydration on the phenolic profile, and antioxidant capacity in two chickpea varieties (Sinaloa and Castellano). Chromatographic analysis identified a total of 24 phenolic components, being isoflavones the main phenolics in raw and processed Sinaloa and Castellano flours. The impact of the industrial dehydration was different depending on the chickpea variety. Although Castellano chickpea exhibited the highest levels of phenolic compounds (103.1 μg/g), significant reductions were observed during processing; in contrast, the dehydration did not cause any further effects in Sinaloa flours. Interestingly, Sinaloa variety showed high thermal stability of isoflavones during processing. As expected, the levels of antioxidant capacity were in accordance with the behavior of phenolic compounds exhibiting noticeable reductions in Castellano chickpea and not relevant changes in Sinaloa chickpea. Thus, the significant occurrence of bioactive phenolic compounds along with the relevant antioxidant capacities of dehydrated chickpea flours make them to be considered functional ingredients for their beneficial health effects, especially in case of Sinaloa.

Evaluation of phenolic profile and antioxidant properties of Pardina lentil as affected by industrial dehydration

This study presents the effects of soaking, cooking, and industrial dehydration treatments on phenolic profile and also on antioxidant properties in Pardina lentil. HPLC-PAC and HPLC-MS (ESI) analysis identified a total of 35 phenolic compounds in raw and processed lentil flours, corresponding to catechins and procyanidins (69% of the total of identified phenolic compounds), flavonols (17%), flavones, and flavanones (5%), and hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic compounds (5 and 4%, respectively). During the industrial process, catechins and procyanidins, flavonols, flavones, and flavanones decreased, while hydroxybenzoic compounds exhibited an important increase. In addition, raw lentils showed high values of the antioxidant activity (66.97 μmol Trolox/g); although the thermal processing promotes decreased, the levels of antioxidant activity were still relevant. Thus, the significant occurrence of bioactive phenolic compounds along with the interesting antioxidant capacity of dehydrated lentil flours make them useful for daily inclusion in the human diet as ready-to-use for special meals to specific populations.