Assessment of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in fruits from Iranian market (Shiraz): A health risk assessment study

Applying Monte Carlo simulation to assess health risks of potentially toxic elements in fruits and nuts grown in the capital of Iran

This study investigated harmful elements (PHEs) in three fruits (figs, oranges, persimmons) and two nuts (walnuts, hazelnuts) grown in Tehran, Iran, using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) to evaluate health risks. The results showed that chromium (Cr) exceeded the 0.1 mg/kg standard in walnuts (mean = 6.15 mg/kg) and figs (mean = 5.23 mg/kg). Copper (Cu) surpassed 2 mg/kg in all produce except figs. Arsenic (As) exceeded the standard in walnuts, persimmons, and oranges, while cadmium (Cd) surpassed the limit only in persimmons. Iron (Fe) levels were significantly high, peaking in persimmons (mean = 71.79 mg/kg). Lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), and mercury (Hg) exceeded safety limits in all samples, while barium (Ba) was the most abundant metal, especially in hazelnuts and oranges. The correlation and clustering analysis indicated that the sources of PHEs may be influenced by a combination of agricultural practices, atmospheric transport, traffic emissions, historical pollution, and natural background levels. Monte Carlo simulation results show Pb poses the highest non-carcinogenic risk for children (TTHQ50th: 12.56) and adults (TTHQ50th: 5.62). Ni presents the highest carcinogenic risk (TCR50th: 1.58E-03 for children, 3.50E-03 for adults. Hence, urgent monitoring of PHEs in local produce is essential.

A systematic review/meta-analysis of xenobiotics in apple products highlights lack of compliance with European Food Safety Authority Regulation

Apples and their derivatives are among the most widely consumed fruit products in the world and iconic examples of food-safety issues. By using a systematic search in the PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase databases, we extracted 1374 publications on pesticides, mycotoxins, and heavy metal contents in apple products, which represented 44%, 48%, and 26% of publications on fruit, respectively. We selected 90 articles in which we were able to assess compliance with the European Food Safety Authority's (EFSA) regulations and found a 42.8% overall rate of checks exceeding the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL), a 51.6% rate for pesticides, a 42.55% rate for heavy metals, and a 40.2% rate for mycotoxins. Over 60% of the 92 pesticides considered were banned by the European Union. The rate of noncompliance was much higher in the Middle East (65.2%), Africa (50%), Asia (43.9%), Europe (37.5%), and South America (33.3%) than in North America (12.5%). We observed an influence of the climate Köppen classification and the 2024 Human Development Index (HDI) on the rate of exceeding MRLs. Our data raise questions about the compliance with production regulation requirements and the efficacy of controls. According to the criteria that define MRLs, we also question non-negligible public health issues generated by the high rate of noncompliance.

Concentration of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Rapid Coffee Products in Bandar Abbas, Iran: Probabilistic Non-Carcinogenic and Carcinogenic Risk Assessment

Coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages in the world. However, coffee plants are often exposed to potentially toxic elements (PTEs) pollution. The main aims of current study were to detect the PTEs in instant coffee and health risk assessment of consumers in Bandar Abbas city. To achieve this, 40 samples of instant coffee were randomly collected from various points in the city in 2023 and PTEs concentrations were measured using flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS). The non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks were calculated using Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) method. The concentrations of Fe and Cu were higher than other PTEs, equaling 404.41 mg/kg and 0.0046 mg/kg, respectively. The non-carcinogenic risk assessment revealed that THQ (Fe > Pb > As > Cd > Ni > Cu) and TTHQ levels were less than 1 based on the 95% percentile in adults and children, indicating there is no possibility of a non-carcinogenic risk associated with instant coffee. The carcinogenic risk due to inorganic As in instant coffee was acceptable (2.63E-5 and 1.27E-5 based on the 95% percentile for adults and children, respectively), therefore PTEs in instant coffee do not endanger the health of consumers.

Review of the Terminology, Approaches, and Formulations Used in the Guidelines on Quantitative Risk Assessment of Chemical Hazards in Food

This paper reviews the published terminology, mathematical models, and the possible approaches used to characterise the risk of foodborne chemical hazards, particularly pesticides, metals, mycotoxins, acrylamide, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The results confirmed the wide variability of the nomenclature used, e.g., 28 different ways of referencing exposure, 13 of cancer risk, or 9 of slope factor. On the other hand, a total of 16 equations were identified to formulate all the risk characterisation parameters of interest. Therefore, the present study proposes a terminology and formulation for some risk characterisation parameters based on the guidelines of international organisations and the literature review. The mathematical model used for non-genotoxic hazards is a ratio in all cases. However, the authors used the probability of cancer or different ratios, such as the margin of exposure (MOE) for genotoxic hazards. For each effect studied per hazard, the non-genotoxic effect was mostly studied in pesticides (79.73%), the genotoxic effect was mostly studied in PAHs (71.15%), and both effects were mainly studied in metals (59.4%). The authors of the works reviewed generally opted for a deterministic approach, although most of those who assessed the risk for mycotoxins or the ratio and risk for acrylamide used the probabilistic approach.

Determination of potentially toxic elements and health risk assessment of dried fruits

This study aims to measure the concentrations of As, Cd, Pb, Cr, and Ni in dried fruits and examine the health effects of these trace metals in relation to people's daily dietary intake. 29 samples of dried fruits purchased at bazaar place were analyzed in terms of toxic elements, which have been reported as cancerous by the World Health Organization (WHO). Dried fruits were digested in a microwave oven with HNO3 and H2O2. Metal concentrations (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb) in these samples were measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Linearity, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), specificity/selectivity, and recovery (%) were all evaluated. The correlation coefficients of elements in this method were good (R2 > 0.9997). The amount of consumption in the area was used to calculate a health risk assessment. The results showed that the samples of dried fruit, which are widely consumed in the identified area, had variable levels. All dried fruits had element concentrations that were lower than the WHO/FAO safe limit.

Consumer health risk assessment of Arsenic and Mercury in hen eggs through Monte Carlo simulations

BACKGROUND

This study was conducted to assess the concentration of heavy metals (arsenic and mercury) and estimate the probability that consumption of hen egg products collected in Iran has carcinogenic or non-carcinogenic consequences.

METHODS

A total of eighty-four hen eggs from 21 major brands were randomly selected from among thirty local supermarkets in two seasons (winter (January) and summer (August) 2022). Arsenic (As) and Mercury (Hg) was determined by using ICP-MS. The human health risk assessment refers to the formulation of the USEPA standard focused on Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), International Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ), and Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) as a probabilistic method. Data analysis was carried out using the statistical software SPSS. Differences in mean concentrations of As and Hg in two seasons were tested by paired t-test.

RESULTS

Over two seasons, the average As and Hg concentrations in hen eggs were 0.79 and 0.18 µg.kg^-1, respectively. Seasonal difference in As concentration (p = 0.451) was not significant, whereas that of Hg concentration (p < 0.001) was significant. The calculated value of EDI was 0.29 µg As/day and 0.06 µg Hg/day. The EWI in the maximum scenario of as level in hen eggs was estimated to be 8.71 µg As and 1.89 µg Hg/month for Iranian adults. THQ's mean for As and Hg in adults was determined to be 0.00385 and 0.00066, respectively. In addition, ILCRs by MCS for As were 4.35E-4.

CONCLUSION

In total, the result indicates that there was not a significant risk of developing cancer; the calculation of THQ was still below the accepted level of 1, indicating that there was no risk while, according to most regulatory programs (ILCR > 10^- 4) shows a threshold carcinogenic risk of arsenic through consuming in hen eggs. Therefore, policymakers need to be aware that it is prohibited to establish chicken farms in heavily polluted urban areas. It is essential to regularly conduct examinations to measure the presence of heavy metals in both ground waters used for agriculture and the feed provided to chickens. Additionally, it is advisable to focus on raising public awareness about the importance of maintaining a healthy diet.

Integrated review of the nexus between toxic elements in the environment and human health

Emerging pollutants in the environment due to economic development have become a global challenge for environmental and human health management. Potentially toxic elements (PTEs), a major group of pollutants, have been detected in soil, air, water and food crops. Humans are exposed to PTEs through soil ingestion, consumption of water, uptake of food crop products originating from polluted fields, breathing of dust and fumes, and direct contact of the skin with contaminated soil and water. The dose absorbed by humans, the exposure route and the duration (i.e., acute or chronic) determine the toxicity of PTEs. Poisoning by PTEs can lead to excessive damage to health as a consequence of oxidative stress produced by the formation of free radicals and, as a consequence, to various disorders. The toxicity of certain organs includes neurotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, skin toxicity, and cardiovascular toxicity. In the treatment of PTE toxicity, synthetic chelating agents and symptomatic supportive procedures have been conventionally used. In addition, there are new insights concerning natural products which may be a powerful option to treat several adverse consequences. Health policy implications need to include monitoring air, water, soil, food products, and individuals at risk, as well as environmental manipulation of soil, water, and sewage. The overall goal of this review is to present an integrated view of human exposure, risk assessment, clinical effects, as well as therapy, including new treatment options, related to highly toxic PTEs.