Production of ginsenoside F1 using commercial enzyme Cellulase KN

Enzyme-assisted Rosa davurica mitigates UV-induced skin photodamage by modulating apoptosis through Nrf2/ARE and MAPK/NF-κB pathways

Exposure to UV irradiation results in abnormal, extensive apoptosis of skin cells. This excessive cell death can promote inflammation and alter the microenvironment, increasing the risk of skin cancer. Despite extensive research, few materials are effective at simultaneously protecting against both UVA and UVB irradiation. This study aims to develop dual-action material using enzyme-assisted extraction of Rosa davurica Pall (RD) to prevent skin photodamage caused by UVA and UVB irradiation. Three different enzymes were used to assist the extraction of RD, followed by an analysis of the changes in active component levels. Skin photodamage models were established by exposing Normal Human Dermal Fibroblasts (NHDF) and HaCaT cells to UVA and UVB irradiation. The impact of enzyme-assisted extracted RD (ERD) on Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) production and cell apoptosis was assessed using Flow Cytometry. The effects of ERDs on inflammatory cytokines were measured using ELISA, and RT-PCR was used to evaluate its impact on apoptotic gene expression in photodamaged cells. Furthermore, the impact of ERDs on the Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/Antioxidant response element (ARE) and Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK)/Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathways was assessed through Western blot analysis. Finally, the impact of ERDs on full-thickness artificial skin tissue after UV irradiation was assessed using hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. Furthermore, leveraging the experimental results, network pharmacology was utilized to explore the potential of ERDs in preventing skin cancer. Enzyme-assisted extraction enhanced the bioactive components of RD. ERDs effectively reduced ROS levels and suppressed the secretion of Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, Interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 by modulating the Nrf2/ARE and inhibiting the MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathways. This mechanism promoted the expression of the anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-2 and decreased the activity of proapoptotic genes BAX, caspase-3, and caspase-9, thereby countering UV-induced apoptosis. Additionally, staining results demonstrated that ERDs effectively repaired UV-induced photodamage and maintained the integrity of skin structure. ERDs provides comprehensive protection against photodamage induced by UVA and UVB irradiation, demonstrating its potential as an effective photoprotective material and possibly in preventing skin cancer.

Rare ginsenosides: A unique perspective of ginseng research

BACKGROUND

Rare ginsenosides (Rg3, Rh2, C-K, etc.) refer to a group of dammarane triterpenoids that exist in low natural abundance, mostly produced by deglycosylation or side chain modification via physicochemical processing or metabolic transformation in gut, and last but not least, exhibited potent biological activity comparing to the primary ginsenosides, which lead to a high concern in both the research and development of ginseng and ginsenoside-related nutraceutical and natural products. Nevertheless, a comprehensive review on these promising compounds is not available yet.

AIM OF REVIEW

In this review, recent advances of Rare ginsenosides (RGs) were summarized dealing with the structurally diverse characteristics, traditional usage, drug discovery situation, clinical application, pharmacological effects and the underlying mechanisms, structure-activity relationship, toxicity, the stereochemistry properties, and production strategies.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

A total of 144 RGs with diverse skeletons and bioactivities were isolated from Panax species. RGs acted as natural ligands on some specific receptors, such as bile acid receptors, steroid hormone receptors, and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) receptors. The RGs showed promising bioactivities including immunoregulatory and adaptogen-like effect, anti-aging effect, anti-tumor effect, as well as their effects on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular system, central nervous system, obesity and diabetes, and interaction with gut microbiota. Clinical trials indicated the potential of RGs, while high quality data remains inadequate, and no obvious side effects was found. The stereochemistry properties induced by deglycosylation at C (20) were also addressed including pharmacodynamics behaviors, together with the state-of-art analytical strategies for the identification of saponin stereoisomers. Finally, the batch preparation of targeted RGs by designated strategies including heating or acid/ alkaline-assisted processes, and enzymatic biotransformation and biosynthesis were discussed. Hopefully, the present review can provide more clues for the extensive understanding and future in-depth research and development of RGs, originated from the worldwide well recognized ginseng plants.

Computer-Guided Engineered Endo- and Exocleaving Glycosidase for Significantly Improving Production of Ginsenoside F1

Ginsenoside F1, a particularly rare and valuable compound known for its health benefits, requires precise deglycosylation due to the extensive glycosylation of ginsenosides in Panax notoginseng. Here, we identified that the β-d-glucosidase BglSK exhibits both endo- and exocleaving glycosidase activities with multi-6-O-glycosides, thereby facilitating the specific production of Ginsenoside F1. The variant BglSKT137A/L508A, obtained through protein engineering, displayed kcat/KM values for the reactions of ginsenoside Rg1 and notoginsenoside R1 that were increased by 13.88-fold and 108.56-fold, respectively, compared with the BglSKWT. The reduced steric hindrance and the overall increase in loop stability show a higher tendency to adopt a closed conformation and facilitate the prereaction state, which may explain the enhanced catalytic efficiency of the engineered enzyme. These beneficial mutants will deepen our understanding of mechanisms for improving glycosidase activity and provide tools for producing high-value P. notoginseng products.

Advancements in enzymatic biotransformation and bioactivities of rare ginsenosides: A review

Ginsenoside, the principal active constituent of ginseng, exhibits enhanced bioavailability and medicinal efficacy in rare ginsenosides compared to major ginsenosides. Current research is focused on efficiently and selectively removing sugar groups attached to the major ginsenoside sugar chains to convert them into rare ginsenosides that meet the demands of medical industry and functional foods. The methods for preparing rare ginsenosides encompass chemical, microbial, and enzymatic approaches. Among these, the enzyme conversion method is highly favored by researchers due to its exceptional specificity and robust efficiency. This review summarizes the biological activities of different rare ginsenosides, explores the various glycosidases used in the biotransformation of different major ginsenosides as substrates, and elucidates their respective corresponding biotransformation pathways. These findings will provide valuable references for the development, utilization, and industrial production of ginsenosides.

Heterologous synthesis of ginsenoside F1 and its precursors in Nicotiana benthamiana

Ginsenoside F1 has high medicinal values, which is a kind of rare triterpene saponin isolated from Panax plants. The extremely low content of ginsenoside F1 in herbs has limited its research and application in medical field. In this work, we constructed a pathway in tobacco for the biosynthesis of ginsenoside F1 by metabolic engineering. Four enzyme genes (PnDDS, CYP716A47, CYP716S1 and UGT71A56) isolated from Panax notoginseng were introduced into tobacco. Thus, a biosynthetic pathway for ginsenoside F1 synthesis was artificially constructed in tobacco cells; moreover, the four exogenous genes could be expressed in the roots, stems and leaves of transgenic plants. Consequently, ginsenoside F1 and its precursors were successfully synthesized in the transgenic tobacco, compared with Panax plants, the content of ginsenoside F1 in transgenic tobacco was doubled. In addition, accumulation of ginsenoside F1 and its precursors in transgenic tobacco shows organ specificity. Based on these results, a new approach was established to produce rare ginsenoside F1; meanwhile, such strategy could also be employed in plant hosts for the heterologous synthesis of other important or rare natural products.

Modulating flavanone compound for reducing the bitterness and improving dietary fiber, physicochemical properties, and anti-adipogenesis of green yuzu powder by enzymatic hydrolysis

Yuzu (Citrus junos Sieb.) is a peel-edible fruit with a pleasant aroma, but its bitter taste can impact consumer appeal. In this study, an efficient enzymatic method reduced bitterness in green yuzu powder (GYP). Cellulase KN and naringinase from Aspergillus oryzae NYO-2 significantly decreased naringin and neohesperidin content by over 87 %, while increasing total dietary fiber and soluble dietary fiber by up to 10 % and 51 %, respectively. Insoluble dietary fiber decreased by up to 22 %. Cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and pectin contents in enzyme-treated YP decreased by 1.15-2.00-fold, respectively. Enzyme-treated GYP exhibited improved physicochemical properties, including enhanced solubility, oil-holding capacity, and water swelling capacities. 3T3-L1 cells treated with cellulase-treated GYP and naringinase-treated GYP showed lower lipid accumulation and higher lipolysis capability than GYP, along with decreased fatty acid synthase contents. These findings suggest that enzyme-treated GYP holds potential as a functional ingredient in the food industry.

Regulation of transcriptome networks that mediate ginsenoside biosynthesis by essential ecological factors

Ginseng, a valuable Chinese medicinal herb, is renowned worldwide for its effectiveness in alleviating certain conditions and promoting overall health. In this study, we performed weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) on the accumulation of essential saponins under the influence of 13 essential environmental factors (including air temperature, air bottom temperature, surface mean temperature, soil temperature, surface shortwave radiation, soil moisture, soil water content, rainfall, total precipitation, elevation, soil type, soil pH, and soil water potential). We identified a total of 40 transcript modules associated with typical environmental factors and the accumulation of essential saponins. Among these, 18 modules were closely related to the influence of typical environmental factors, whereas 22 modules were closely related to the accumulation of essential saponins. These results were verified by examining the transcriptome, saponin contents, environmental factor information and the published data and revealed the regulatory basis of saponin accumulation at the transcriptome level under the influence of essential environmental factors. We proposed a working model of saponin accumulation mediated by the transcriptional regulatory network that is affected by typical environmental factors. An isomorphic white-box neural network was constructed based on this model and the predicted results of the white-box neural network correlated with saponin accumulation. The effectiveness of our correlation-directed graph in predicting saponin contents was verified by bioinformatics analysis based on results obtained in this study and transcripts known to affect the biosynthesis of saponin Rb1. The directed graph represents a useful tool for manipulating saponin biosynthesis while considering the influence of essential environmental factors in ginseng and other medicinal plants.

Ginsenoside F1 attenuates pirarubicin-induced cardiotoxicity by modulating Nrf2 and AKT/Bcl-2 signaling pathways

Background

Pirarubicin (THP) is an anthracycline antibiotic used to treat various malignancies in humans. The clinical usefulness of THP is unfortunately limited by its dose-related cardiotoxicity. Ginsenoside F1 (GF1) is a metabolite formed when the ginsenosides Re and Rg1 are hydrolyzed. However, the protective effects and underlying mechanisms of GF1 on THP-induced cardiotoxicity remain unclear.

Methods

We investigated the anti-apoptotic and anti-oxidative stress effects of GF1 on an in vitro model, using H9c2 cells stimulated by THP, plus trigonelline or AKT inhibitor imidazoquinoxaline (IMQ), as well as an in vivo model using THP-induced cardiotoxicity in rats. Using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent test, the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), creatine kinase (CK-MB), cardiac troponin (c-TnT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) were determined. Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived2)-like 2 (Nrf2) and the expression of Nrf2 target genes, including heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), glutathione-S-transferase (Gst), glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit (GCLM), and expression levels of AKT/Bcl-2 signaling pathway proteins were detected using Western blot analysis.

Results

THP-induced myocardial histopathological damage, electrocardiogram (ECG) abnormalities, and cardiac dysfunction were reduced in vivo by GF1. GF1 also decreased MDA, BNP, CK-MB, c-TnT, and LDH levels in the serum, while raising SOD and GSH levels. GF1 boosted Nrf2 nuclear translocation and Nrf2 target gene expression, including HO-1, Gst, and GCLM. Furthermore, GF1 regulated apoptosis by activating AKT/Bcl-2 signaling pathways. Employing Nrf2 inhibitor trigonelline and AKT inhibitor IMQ revealed that GF1 lacked antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effects.

Conclusion

In conclusion, GF1 was found to alleviate THP-induced cardiotoxicity via modulating Nrf2 and AKT/Bcl-2 signaling pathways, ultimately alleviating myocardial oxidative stress and apoptosis.

Advances and challenges in ginseng research from 2011 to 2020: the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis

Covering: 2011 to the end of 2020Panax species (Araliaceae), particularly P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and P. notoginseng, have a long history of medicinal use because of their remarkable tonifying effects, and currently serve as crucial sources for various healthcare products, functional foods, and cosmetics, aside from their vast clinical preparations. The huge market demand on a global scale prompts the continuous prosperity in ginseng research concerning the discovery of new compounds, precise quality control, ADME (absorption/disposition/metabolism/excretion), and biosynthesis pathways. Benefitting from the ongoing rapid development of analytical technologies, e.g. multi-dimensional chromatography (MDC), personalized mass spectrometry (MS) scan strategies, and multi-omics, highly recognized progress has been made in driving ginseng analysis towards "systematicness, integrity, personalization, and intelligentization". Herein, we review the advances in the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis pathway of ginseng over the past decade (2011-2020), with 410 citations. Emphasis is placed on the introduction of new compounds isolated (saponins and polysaccharides), and the emerging novel analytical technologies and analytical strategies that favor ginseng's authentic use and global consumption. Perspectives on the challenges and future trends in ginseng analysis are also presented.

Production of minor ginsenosides by combining Stereum hirsutum and cellulase

Minor ginsenosides (MGs) (include ginsenoside F2, Compound K, PPT, etc), which are generally not produced by ginseng plants naturally, are obtained by deglycosylation of major ginsenosides. However, the conventional processes used to produce deglycosylated ginsenosides focus on the use of intestinal microorganisms for transformation. In this study, an edible and medicinal mushroom Stereum hirsutum JE0512 was screened from 161 β-glucosidase-producing soil microorganisms sourced from wild ginseng using the plate coloration method. Furthermore, JE0512 was used for the production of CK from ginseng extracts (GE) in solid-state fermentation (SSF) using 20 g corn bran as substrate, 4 g GE, and 20% inoculation volume, and the results showed that the highest CK content was 29.13 mg/g. After combining S. hirsutum JE0512 with cellulase (Aspergillus niger), the MGs (F2, CK, and PPT) content increased from 1.66 to 130.79 mg/g in the final products. Our results indicate that the Stereum genus has the potential to biotransform GE into CK and the combination of S. hirsutum JE0512 and cellulase could pave the way for the production of MGs from GE.

Biotransformation of Ginsenoside Rb1 to Ginsenoside CK by Strain XD101: a Safe Bioconversion Strategy

Ginsenoside Rb1 is the main predominant component in Panax species. In this study, an eco-friendly and convenient preparation method for ginsenoside CK has been established, and five strains of β-glucosidase-producing microorganisms were screened out from the soil of a Panax notoginseng planting field using Esculin-R2A agar. Aspergillus niger XD101 showed that it has excellent biocatalytic activity for ginsenosides; one of the isolates can convert ginsenoside Rb1 to CK using extracellular enzyme from the mycelium. Mycelia of A. niger were cultivated in wheat bran media at 30 °C for 11 days. By the removal of mycelia from cultured broth, enzyme salt fractionation by ammonium sulfate (70%, v/v) precipitation, and dialysis, sequentially, crude enzyme preparations from fermentation liquid supernatant were obtained. The enzymatic transformed Rb1 as the following pathways: Rb1→Rd→F2→CK. The optimized reaction conditions are at reaction time of 72 h, in the range of pH 4-5, and temperature of 50-60 °C. Active minor ginsenosides can be obtained by a specific bioconversion via A. niger XD101 producing the ginsenoside-hydrolyzing β-glucosidase. In addition, the crude enzyme can be resulted in producing ginsenoside CK via conversion of ginsenoside Rb1 at high conversion yield (94.4%). FDA generally regarded, A.niger as safe microorganism. Therefore, these results indicate that A. niger XD10 may provide an alternative method to prepare ginsenoside CK without food safety issues in the pharmaceutical industry.

Diversity of Ginsenoside Profiles Produced by Various Processing Technologies

Ginseng is a traditional medicinal herb commonly consumed world-wide owing to its unique family of saponins called ginsenosides. The absorption and bioavailability of ginsenosides mainly depend on an individual's gastrointestinal bioconversion abilities. There is a need to improve ginseng processing to predictably increase the pharmacologically active of ginsenosides. Various types of ginseng, such as fresh, white, steamed, acid-processed, and fermented ginsengs, are available. The various ginseng processing methods produce a range ginsenoside compositions with diverse pharmacological properties. This review is intended to summarize the properties of the ginsenosides found in different Panax species as well as the different processing methods. The sugar moiety attached to the C-3, C-6, or C-20 deglycosylated to produce minor ginsenosides, such as Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd→Rg3, F2, Rh2; Re, Rf→Rg1, Rg2, F1, Rh1. The malonyl-Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd were demalonylated into ginsenoside Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd by dehydration. Dehydration also produces minor ginsenosides such as Rg3→Rk1, Rg5, Rz1; Rh2→Rk2, Rh3; Rh1→Rh4, Rk3; Rg2→Rg6, F4; Rs3→Rs4, Rs5; Rf→Rg9, Rg10. Acetylation of several ginsenosides may generate acetylated ginsenosides Rg5, Rk1, Rh4, Rk3, Rs4, Rs5, Rs6, and Rs7. Acid processing methods produces Rh1→Rk3, Rh4; Rh2→Rk1, Rg5; Rg3→Rk2, Rh3; Re, Rf, Rg2→F1, Rh1, Rf2, Rf3, Rg6, F4, Rg9. Alkaline produces Rh16, Rh3, Rh1, F4, Rk1, ginsenoslaloside-I, 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rh1-60-acetate, 20(R)-ginsenoside Rh19, zingibroside-R1 through hydrolysis, hydration addition reactions, and dehydration. Moreover, biological processing of ginseng generates the minor ginsenosides of Rg3, F2, Rh2, CK, Rh1, Mc, compound O, compound Y through hydrolysis reactions, and synthetic ginsenosides Rd12 and Ia are produced through glycosylation. This review with respect to the properties of particular ginsenosides could serve to increase the utilization of ginseng in agricultural products, food, dietary supplements, health supplements, and medicines, and may also spur future development of novel highly functional ginseng products through a combination of various processing methods.

Advances in the Production of Minor Ginsenosides Using Microorganisms and Their Enzymes

Abstract Minor ginsenodes are of great interest due to their diverse pharmacological activities such as their anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, neuroprotective, immunomodulator, and anti-inflammatory effects. The miniscule amount of minor ginsenosides in ginseng plants has driven the development of their mass production methods. Among the various production methods for minor ginsenosides, the utilization of microorganisms and their enzymes are considered as highly specific, safe, and environmentally friendly. In this review, various minor ginsenosides production strategies, namely utilizing microorganisms and recombinant microbial enzymes, for biotransforming major ginsenosides into minor ginsenoside, as well as constructing synthetic minor ginsenosides production pathways in yeast cell factories, are described and discussed. Furthermore, the present challenges and future research direction for producing minor ginsenosides using those approaches are discussed.

Ginsenoside F1 Ameliorates Endothelial Cell Inflammatory Injury and Prevents Atherosclerosis in Mice through A20-Mediated Suppression of NF-kB Signaling

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease and endothelial cell injury is the initial event. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of ginsenoside F1 (GF1) on AS and the potential molecular mechanisms of ox-LDL induced endothelial injury. ApoE-/- mice were fed a high fat diet and orally treated with GF1 (50 mg/kg/day) for 8 weeks. Atherosclerotic plaque and LOX-1, TLR4, NF-κB expression levels in the aortic root and inflammatory factor MPO in whole body were measured. The treatment with GF1 induced a remarkable reduction in the atherosclerotic lesion area, LOX-1, TLR4 expression and decreased the MPO distribution. Meanwhile, in vitro study, we confirmed that GF1 treatment greatly increased ox-LDL-injured endothelial cell viability, ameliorated LOX-1, TLR4 expression levels and reduced monocytes adhesion. Protein microarray demonstrated that GF1 significantly inhibited G-CSF, ICAM-1, MIP-1δ, IL-1α, IL-15, IL-16 levels. Mechanistically, the GF1 treatment suppressed the NF-κB nuclear translocation. Furthermore, our data indicated that GF1 significantly increased A20 expression level and A20 siRNA markedly abolished the attenuation of GF1 on NF-κB nuclear translocation and inflammatory factors expression. Our results suggest that the GF1 may be a potential drug for anti-atherosclerosis.

Comprehensive Profiling and Quantification of Ginsenosides in the Root, Stem, Leaf, and Berry of Panax ginseng by UPLC-QTOF/MS

The effective production and usage of ginsenosides, given their distinct pharmacological effects, are receiving increasing amounts of attention. As the ginsenosides content differs in different parts of Panax ginseng, we wanted to assess and compare the ginsenosides content in the ginseng roots, leave, stems, and berries. To extract the ginsenosides, 70% (v/v) methanol was used. The optimal ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS) method was used to profile various ginsenosides from the different parts of P. ginseng. The datasets were then subjected to multivariate analysis including principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA). A UPLC-QTOF/MS method with an in-house library was constructed to profile 58 ginsenosides. With this method, a total of 39 ginsenosides were successfully identified and quantified in the ginseng roots, leave, stem, and berries. PCA and HCA characterized the different ginsenosides compositions from the different parts. The quantitative ginsenoside contents were also characterized from each plant part. The results of this study indicate that the UPLC-QTOF/MS method can be an effective tool to characterize various ginsenosides from the different parts of P. ginseng.

Bioconversion, health benefits, and application of ginseng and red ginseng in dairy products

Ginseng and red ginseng are popular as functional foods in Asian countries such as Korea, Japan, and China. They possess various pharmacologic effects, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, and anti-viral activities. Ginsenosides are a class of pharmacologically active components in ginseng and red ginseng. Major ginsenosides are converted to minor ginsenosides, which have better bioavailability and cellular uptake, by microorganisms and enzymes. Studies have shown that ginseng and red ginseng can affect the physicochemical and sensory properties, ginsenosides content, and functional properties of dairy products. In addition, lactic acid bacteria in dairy products can convert into minor ginsenosides and ginseng and red ginseng improve functionality of products. This review will discuss the characteristics of ginseng and red ginseng, and their bioconversion, functionality, and application in dairy products.

A possible water-soluble inducer for synthesis of cellulase in Aspergillus niger

The synthesis of cellulase in filamentous fungi can be triggered by several inducers. In this study, a bamboo-shoot shell pretreated with Pleurotus ostreatus could promote the formation of cellulases in Aspergillus niger. Further identification, including UPLC-TOF-MS, ultrafiltration, and FT-IR, denoted that the soluble inducer was not a traditional disaccharide but a type of modified lignin polymer. This revelation may result in incipient strategies to ameliorate cellulase productivity.