Occurrence, control and fate of contaminants of emerging concern in environmental compartments in Brazil

Recent advances in bioassays for assessing the toxicity of environmental contaminants in effect-directed analysis

Chemical cocktails in the environment can cause adverse impacts on ecosystems and human health even at low concentrations. Effect-directed analysis (EDA) has proven to be very valuable in identifying key toxic substances in environmental mixtures. For this, it is important to carefully select accurate bioassays from a wide range of tests for EDA when applying it to actual environmental samples. This article reviews studies published from 2014 to 2023 that have applied EDA and summarizes the bioassays and their corresponding biological effects. A total of 127 studies were selected from 591 publications evaluating the toxic effects of environmental samples, including wastewater, surface water, and sediments. Here, bioassays used in EDA are summarized, including the assays that measure specific receptor-mediated modes of action (MOA), induction of xenobiotic metabolism pathways, and induction of adaptive stress response pathways using either in vitro or in vivo bioassays. Also, the identified substances using EDA are discussed based on their MOA. The importance of EDA in establishing a comprehensive approach for the detection of environmental contaminants using bioanalytical methods is emphasized. The current limitations and benefits of using EDA in practical applications are outlined and strategies for moving forward are proposed.

Impact of the wastewater treatment technology and storage on micropollutant profiles during reclaimed water irrigation: A wide-scope HRMS screening in a water-soil-lettuce-leachate system

In recent decades, climate change and global warming have intensified water scarcity, while the growing global population demands have increased. Reclaimed water (RW) has become essential, offering a viable alternative for crop irrigation in line with circular economy principles. However, although RW reuse is crucial for addressing water shortages, the presence of micropollutants still poses a challenge. The potential for micropollutants to be taken up by crops and enter the food chain still raises significant scientific concern. This work studies RW treated by conventional activated sludge followed by sand filtration and chlorination (CAS+SFC-RW) and membrane-bioreactor-treated RW (MBR-RW) in terms of micropollutant concentrations, providing insights into the differences in micropollutant profiles between the two treatments. The results demonstrate that MBR-RW generally exhibits lower cumulative concentrations of target analytes. However, the study also indicates that the storage of RW for irrigation significantly affects the presence of micropollutants, contributing to their degradation, increase or persistence. Soil analysis revealed fewer detectable micropollutants in the topsoil (0-20 cm) compared to RW, likely attributed to attenuation processes, and more micropollutants (both with respect to concentration and number) compared to deeper soil layers. Carbamazepine, 10,11-epoxide-carbamazepine, and telmisartan were found to migrate to deeper soil levels. The analysis revealed 13 micropollutants in lettuce irrigated with CAS+SFC-RW and 8 with MBR-RW, with carbamazepine and sulfamethoxazole being the most abundant. These differences are likely driven by the physicochemical properties of the compounds and plant-specific factors. Leachates examination showed the potential for contaminants to leach through soil, posing a risk for groundwater contamination. The study showed that the presence of micropollutants in RW is not directly associated with their presence in soil or lettuce, underscoring the need for regulatory policies that address not only their presence in RW but their eventual fate within the agricultural and environmental context.

Electrochemical oxidation for the rapid degradation of emerging contaminants: Insights into electrolytes and process parameters for phytotoxicity reduction

Atrazine (ATZ), carbamazepine (CBZ), and sulfamethoxazole (SMX) are contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) commonly detected in water sources, posing a risk to health, sanitation, and the ecosystems. This study evaluates the degradation, mineralization, and phytotoxicity reduction of a solution containing these three CECs using an electrochemical advanced oxidation process (EAOP). Key operational parameters - pH, flow rate (Q), current density (j), and type and concentration of supporting electrolytes (NaCl and Na2SO4) - were systematically investigated. The results showed that pH had minimal impact on the process. Higher flow rates (250 L h-1) improved mineralization due to enhanced mass transfer to •OH on the anode surface. However, the flow rate had less effect on degradation, as the dominant degradation mechanisms involved chlorine- or sulfate-based oxidants. Current densities of 1 and 10 mA cm-2 produced the most favorable results, leading to efficient degradation and mineralization, along with satisfactory mineralization current efficiency (up to 47 %) and energy consumption values (91,76-3142,88 kW h kg-1). When NaCl was used as supporting electrolyte, the degradation of CECs was twice as fast as with Na2SO4, achieving over 88 % degradation in 5 min and 40 % mineralization within 60 min. While chlorinated and sulfate species enhance process efficiency, excessive electrolyte concentration should be avoided to prevent scaling and •OH scavenging. Phytotoxicity tests with Allium cepa revealed an unexpected reduction in toxicity in samples treated with NaCl, suggesting that Na2SO4 may be more phytotoxic under the tested conditions.

LED-irradiated photo-Fenton process on pollutant removal: outcomes, trends, and limitations

This manuscript critically reviews the state of the art on the application of photo-Fenton processes irradiated by light-emitting diode arrays (LED) with a focus on the removal of contaminants of emerging concern (CEC) from aqueous matrices. LEDs are clean, low-cost radiation sources with longer lifespan compared to mercury lamps. This study covers the influence of LED sources, wavelengths, and dose upon CEC removal, and the potential for disinfection, abatement of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB), and genes (ARG). The bibliographic search was performed in Scopus database using keyword combinations and resulted in a portfolio containing 52 relevant articles published between 2010-2023. According to reviewed papers, LED photoreactor design has evolved in the past decade aiming to improve CEC degradation in aqueous matrices while reducing construction and operation costs, and energy consumption. Among several reactors (annular, fluidized bed, parallel plate, wireless, pathway systems, and microreactor) surveyed for their performance and scalability, LED chips and strips are particularly suitable for application due to their wide emission angle (≈120°) and small size (mm2), which allow for, respectively, efficient illumination coverage and flexible arrangement and design. LED microreactors are very efficient in the degradation of contaminants and scalable with reduced area requirements. Although most studies were performed in synthetic solutions and at laboratory scale, the externally LED irradiated cylindrical reactor was successful for application in full-scale municipal water treatment plants. Future studies should focus on evaluating CEC removal in wastewater using scalable devices for continuous operation of solar photo-Fenton at night.

A critical review of recent advancements in the photocatalysis process, mechanism, and degradation pathways for the removal of phthalates from the contaminated water matrix

Phthalates, a sort of plasticizer, are widely utilized in various consumer products and pose significant environmental and health risks due to their persistence and potential toxicity. This review explores the occurrence, sources, environmental impact, and remediation strategies for phthalates. Various remediation techniques have been investigated to address phthalate contamination. Among these, photocatalysis, an advanced oxidation process (AOP), has emerged as a viable approach due to its ability to mineralize organic contaminants into innocuous byproducts. The review discusses the recent advancements in photocatalytic processes, the underlying mechanisms, and degradation pathways for phthalate removal. The mechanism of photocatalytic degradation includes the generation of reactive oxygen species like hydroxyl radicals (OH•) and superoxide radicals (O2-•) and their role in breaking down phthalate molecules. It also highlights recent advancements in photocatalytic materials, such as metal-doped semiconductors and composite materials, which enhance the removal efficiency. The review concludes by emphasizing the need for integrated approaches to achieve effective and sustainable phthalate remediation. Future research should focus on developing efficient and cost-effective photocatalytic materials, optimizing reactor design, and scaling up photocatalytic processes for practical applications. The review also highlights the challenges and limitations of photocatalytic processes, including low quantum efficiency, catalyst deactivation, and mass transfer limitations. Potential areas of study are put forward to address these challenges and further advance the application of photocatalysis for phthalate removal. This review intends to help the development of efficient photocatalytic technologies for the remediation of phthalate-contaminated water by providing a complete overview of the present state of the art.

Selected emerging contaminants in water: Global occurrence, existing treatment technologies, regulations and associated risk

Emerging contaminants (ECs) in aquatic environments have recently attracted the attention of researchers due to their ubiquitous occurrence and the potential risk they may pose to life. While advance analytical methods have improved global reporting in water matrices, additional information is needed to compile data on their occurrence, existing legislation, treatment technologies and associated human health risks. Therefore, the present study provides an overview of the occurrence of selected ECs, including personal care product, antibiotics, NSAIDs, EDCs and psychiatric drugs, the existing regulatory framework and their toxicological effects on human health. The water matrices under review are the treated wastewater, surface water, groundwater and, in a few cases, drinking water. The study also highlights different treatment technologies available, and evaluates their performance based on the removal efficiency for different classes of ECs. For removal of almost all ECs considered, ozonation integrated with gamma radiation was reported highly efficient. Risk analysis was also performed for selected ECs including diclofenac, ibuprofen, naproxen, carbamazepine, estrone, 17 β-estradiol, bisphenol A, sulfamethoxazole, erythromycin and triclosan. The human health risk analysis indicated the highest number of locations with potential risk due to the EDCs, with South America, Europe and Asia having multiple risks due to estrone and Bisphenol A. The results of this study will give a better insight into the current situation of ECs in the global water matrices, the performance assessment of treatment technologies and the risk analysis will describe the need for more robust regulatory structures around the world to prevent the occurrence of such contaminants in the aquatic environment.

Suspect screening and quantitative analysis of 165 contaminants of emerging concern in water, sediments, and biota using LC-MS/MS: Ecotoxicological and human health risk assessment

This study aimed to implement a targeted multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) screening strategy using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the initial detection of 165 compounds of emerging concern (CECs) in water, sediment, and fish samples. Following the screening, confirmatory and quantitative analyses were conducted using analytical standards for the detected compounds. Qualitative results were confirmed using high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) for those CECs without available standards. Ecotoxicological and human health risk assessments were performed for the quantified CECs. The analysis identified 35 suspect CECs (12 quantified with analytical standards), including parent compounds and metabolites of anti-inflammatories, antibiotics, antidepressants, sedatives, stimulants, and illicit drugs. High concentrations of these CECs were particularly evident near a Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP), where notable levels of compounds such as caffeine (4.02-15.03 ng L-1), ciprofloxacin (6.05 ng L-1), clindamycin (6.04-7.01 ng L-1), and diclofenac (1.36-2.20 ng L-1) were detected. Sediment samples exhibited the highest incidence of CECs, with caffeine reaching the highest concentration (55.89 μg kg-1). Ciprofloxacin (2.94 to 4.18 μg kg-1) was the sole CEC detected in biota samples. The ecotoxicological risk assessment indicated that the concentrations of all detected compounds posed significant ecotoxicity risks to the aquatic environment. In particular, caffeine and diclofenac presented considerable acute and chronic toxic risks to aquatic organisms, including algae, crustaceans, and fish. The Hazard Index (HI) values (3.65-7 to 8.06-8) suggest that ingesting ciprofloxacin at the concentrations found in fish does not represent a significant risk to human health. However, due to the reported risks to estuarine biota, it is crucial to continuously monitor the accumulation of these compounds in food widely consumed by the local population to assess potential impacts on human health.

Beyond batch experiments: unveiling the potential of bimetallic carbon xerogels for catalytic wet peroxide oxidation of hospital wastewater in continuous mode

Single- and bimetallic carbon xerogels were prepared by incorporating iron and iron-cobalt precursors during their synthesis, respectively, and tested in the catalytic wet peroxide oxidation (CWPO) of ibuprofen spiked into a simulated matrix in batch mode. The bimetallic catalyst outperformed single and non-metallic catalyst by 25 and 85% after 360 min of reaction, at mild temperature (30 °C). The best-performing catalyst was further used to treat hospital wastewater in a CWPO system operating in full continuous mode. Process optimization was carried out considering different catalyst loads, temperatures, and pH. The results obtained showed that the best conditions are initial pH 3, T = 80 °C, and a catalyst load of 35.4 mg cm-3. Having maintained values of chemical oxygen demand (COD) removals as high as 80% after 24 h of continuous operation, the results herein reported revealed the high potential of the bimetallic carbon xerogel for CWPO of hospital wastewater beyond conventional applications in batch mode. Despite some catalytic deactivation, the bimetallic carbon xerogel still delivered a mineralization degree as high as 55% of the initial total organic carbon (TOC) content of the hospital wastewater in the third 24-h cycle of CWPO in continuous mode of operation with successive catalyst reuse, as opposed to a 73% TOC removal in the first cycle. Therefore, our results open prospects for the implementation of CWPO for hospital wastewater treatment in continuous mode of operation.

A comprehensive study on bisphenol A and estrogenic activity in the Paraíba do Sul River, São Paulo, Brazil

In recent decades, contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in aquatic environments have garnered significant attention due to their adverse effects on ecosystems and human health. Among these CECs, bisphenol A (BPA) is a major concern because of its widespread use and endocrine-disrupting properties. Brazil's urbanization and industrial growth have led to significant pollution challenges, primarily due to inadequate sewage infrastructure and untreated domestic wastewater being discharged into rivers, contributing to the presence of emerging contaminants in surface waters. This study assessed BPA contamination and estrogenic activity in the Paraíba do Sul River in São Paulo State, Brazil. BPA was detected in 50% of the samples, with concentrations ranging from 11.1 to 116.9 ng L-1. The estrogenic activity assay also showed positive results in 50% of the samples, ranging from 0.12 to 1.36 ng L-1 of estradiol-equivalent, indicating the presence of multiple compounds contributing to estrogenic effects. This underscores the need for a comprehensive approach to monitoring water quality. The water quality index (WQI) revealed compromised water quality at the studied sites, particularly during the rainy season. The correlation between the WQI, BPA, and estrogenic activity parameters suggests that endocrine-disrupting compounds significantly impact water quality, exacerbated by inadequate wastewater treatment infrastructure.

Occurrence and Environmental Risk Assessment of Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Brazilian Surface Waters

We investigated the occurrence and the environmental risk of eight contaminants of emerging concern (CECs; acetaminophen, naproxen, diclofenac, methylparaben, 17β-estradiol, sulfathiazole, sulfadimethoxine, and sulfamethazine) in three Brazilian water bodies, namely, the Monjolinho River Basin (São Paulo State), the Mogi Guaçu River (São Paulo State), and the Itapecuru River (Maranhão State) in three sampling campaigns. The CECs were only quantified in surface water samples collected at the Monjolinho River Basin. Acetaminophen, naproxen, and methylparaben were detected in the range of <200 to 575.9 ng L-1, <200 to 224.7 ng L-1, and <200 to 303.6 ng L-1, respectively. The detection frequencies of the three measured compounds were between 33% and 67%. The highest concentrations of CECs were associated with intense urbanization and untreated sewage discharge. Furthermore, CEC concentrations were significantly correlated with total organic carbon, electrical conductivity, and dissolved oxygen levels, suggesting that domestic pollution from urban areas is an important source in the distribution of CECs in the Monjolinho River Basin. The environmental risk assessment indicated a high risk for acetaminophen (risk quotient [RQ] values between 2.1 and 5.8), a medium risk for naproxen (RQs between 0.6 and 0.7), and a low risk for methylparaben (RQs < 0.1) to the freshwater biota of the Monjolinho River Basin. Our findings show potential threats of CECs in Brazilian water bodies, especially in vulnerable areas, and reinforce the need for improvements in environmental regulations to include monitoring and control of these compounds in aquatic systems. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:2199-2210. © 2024 SETAC.

Acute indomethacin exposure impairs cardiac development by affecting cardiac muscle contraction and inducing myocardial apoptosis in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

The accumulation of the active pharmaceutical chemical in the environment usually results in environmental pollution to increase the risk to human health. Indomethacin is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug that potentially causes systemic and developmental toxicity in various tissues. However, there have been few studies for its potential effects on cardiac development. In this study, we systematically determined the cardiotoxicity of acute indomethacin exposure in zebrafish at different concentrations with morphological, histological, and molecular levels. Specifically, the malformation and dysfunction of cardiac development, including pericardial oedema, abnormal heart rate, the larger distance between the venous sinus and bulbus arteriosus (SV-BA), enlargement of the pericardial area, and aberrant motor capability, were determined after indomethacin exposure. In addition, further investigation indicated that indomethacin exposure results in myocardial apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner in zebrafish at early developmental stage. Mechanistically, our results revealed that indomethacin exposure mainly regulates key cardiac development-related genes, especially genes related to the cardiac muscle contraction-related signaling pathway, in zebrafish embryos. Thus, our findings suggested that acute indomethacin exposure might cause cardiotoxicity by disturbing the cardiac muscle contraction-related signaling pathway and inducing myocardial apoptosis in zebrafish embryos.

Critical review on toxic contaminants in surface water ecosystem: sources, monitoring, and its impact on human health

Surface water pollution is a critical and urgent global issue that demands immediate attention. Surface water plays a crucial role in supporting and sustaining life on the earth, but unfortunately, till now, we have less understanding of its spatial and temporal dynamics of discharge and storage variations at a global level. The contamination of surface water arises from various sources, classified into point and non-point sources. Point sources are specific, identifiable origins of pollution that release pollutants directly into water bodies through pipes or channels, allowing for easier identification and management, e.g., industrial discharges, sewage treatment plants, and landfills. However, non-point sources originate from widespread activities across expansive areas and present challenges due to its diffuse nature and multiple pathways of contamination, e.g., agricultural runoff, urban storm water runoff, and atmospheric deposition. Excessive accumulation of heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, pesticides, chlorination by-products, pharmaceutical products in surface water through different pathways threatens food quality and safety. As a result, there is an urgent need for developing and designing new tools for identifying and quantifying various environmental contaminants. In this context, chemical and biological sensors emerge as fascinating devices well-suited for various environmental applications. Numerous chemical and biological sensors, encompassing electrochemical, magnetic, microfluidic, and biosensors, have recently been invented by hydrological scientists for the detection of water pollutants. Furthermore, surface water contaminants are monitored through different sensors, proving their harmful effects on human health.

Factors in the decline of the African penguin: Are contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) a potential new age stressor?

The African penguin is currently experiencing a significant decline, with just over 10,000 breeding pairs left. A substantial body of research reflects the impacts of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) on the marine environment, with wastewater treatment plants reported as one of the main sources of CEC release. In South Africa, CECs were identified contaminating the marine environment and bioaccumulating in several marine species. Approximately 70 % of all African penguin colonies breed in close proximity to cities and/or harbors in South Africa. Currently, the impact of CECs as a stressor upon the viability of African penguin populations is unknown. Based on the search results there was a clear lack of information on CECs' bioaccumulation and impact on the African penguin. This narrative review will thus focus on the prevalent sources and types of CECs and examine the reported consequences of constant exposure in seabirds, particularly African penguins.

Review on antibiotic pollution dynamics: insights to occurrence, environmental behaviour, ecotoxicity, and management strategies

Antibiotic contamination poses a significant global concern due to its far-reaching impact on public health and the environment. This comprehensive review delves into the prevalence of various antibiotic classes in environmental pollution and their interactions with natural ecosystems. Fluoroquinolones, macrolides, tetracyclines, and sulphonamides have emerged as prevalent contaminants in environmental matrices worldwide. The concentrations of these antibiotics vary across diverse environments, influenced by production practices, consumer behaviours, and socio-economic factors. Low- and low-middle-income countries face unique challenges in managing antibiotic contamination, with dominant mechanisms like hydrolysis, sorption, and biodegradation leading to the formation of toxic byproducts. Ecotoxicity reports reveal the detrimental effects of these byproducts on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, further emphasizing the gravity of the issue. Notably, monitoring the antibiotic parent compound alone may be inadequate for framing effective control and management strategies for antibiotic pollution. This review underscores the imperative of a comprehensive, multi-sectoral approach to address environmental antibiotic contamination and combat antimicrobial resistance. It also advocates for the development and implementation of tailored national action plans that consider specific environmental conditions and factors. Thus, an approach is crucial for safeguarding both public health and the delicate balance of our natural ecosystems.

Integrated occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern, including microplastics, in urban and agricultural watersheds in the State of São Paulo, Brazil

Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), including microplastics, have been the focus of many studies due to their environmental impact, affecting biota and human health. The diverse land uses and occupation of watersheds are important parameters driving the occurrence of these contaminants. CECs such as pesticides, drugs, hormones, and industrial-origin substances were analyzed in urban/industrial (Atibaia) and agricultural (Preto/Turvo) watersheds located in São Paulo state, Brazil. A total of 24 CECs were investigated, and, as a result, only 5 (caffeine, carbendazim, atrazine, ametrine and 2-hydroxytrazine) were responsible for 81.73 % of the statistical difference between watersheds contamination profile. The Atibaia watershed presented considerable concentrations of caffeine (ranging from 75 to 2025 ng L-1), while carbendazim (44 to 1144 ng L-1) and atrazine (3 to 266 ng L-1) presented highest levels in Preto/Turvo watershed. In all sampling points, the cumulative potential aquatic life risk assessed by the NORMAN database indicates some level of environmental concern associated to pesticides and caffeine (risk quotient >1). Microplastics had been analyzed in both watersheds, being the white/transparent fragments in size between 100 and 250 μm the most detected in this study. The estimated abundance in the Atibaia watershed ranged from 349 to 2898 items m-3 presenting some influence of pluviosity, while in Rio Preto/Turvo ranged from 169 to 6370 items m-3, being more abundant in the dam area without a clear influence of pluviosity. In both basins, polyethylene and polypropylene were the most detected polymers, probably due to the intense use of single-use plastics in urban areas. Possibly, due to the distinct physic-chemical properties of microplastics and organic CECs, no correlations were observed between their occurrence, which makes us conclude that they have different transport mechanism, behavior, and fate in the environment.

The role of the macroalgae Ulva lactuca on the cellular effects of neodymium and mercury in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis

Rare earth elements (REEs) are increasingly being studied mainly due to their economic importance and wide range of applications, but also for their rising environmental concentrations and potential environmental and ecotoxicological impacts. Among REEs, neodymium (Nd) is widely used in lasers, glass additives, and magnets. Currently, NdFeB-based permanent magnets are the most significant components of electronic devices and Nd is used because of its magnetic properties. In addition to REEs, part of the environmental pollution related to electrical and electronic equipment, fluorescent lamps and batteries also comes from mercury (Hg). Since both elements persist in ecosystems and are continuously accumulated by marine organisms, a promising approach for water decontamination has emerged. Through a process known as sorption, live marine macroalgae can be used, especially Ulva lactuca, to accumulate potential toxic elements from the water. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the cellular toxicity of Nd and Hg in Mytilus galloprovincialis, comparing the biochemical effects induced by these elements in the presence or absence of the macroalgae U. lactuca. The results confirmed that Hg was more toxic to mussels than Nd, but also showed the good capability of U. lactuca in preventing the onset of cellular disturbance and homeostasis disruption in M. galloprovincialis by reducing bioavailable Hg levels. Overall, the biochemical parameters evaluated related to metabolism, antioxidant and biotransformation defences, redox balance, and cellular damage, showed that algae could prevent biological effects in mussels exposed to Hg compared to those exposed to Nd. This study contributes to the advancement of knowledge in this field, namely the understanding of the impacts of different elements on bivalves and the crucial role of algae in the protection of other aquatic organisms.

Physiological responses on the reproductive, metabolism and stress endpoints of Astyanax lacustris females (Teleostei: Characiformes) after diclofenac and ibuprofen exposure

Diclofenac (DCF) and ibuprofen (IBU) are pharmaceutical compounds frequently detected in aquatic compartments worldwide. Several hazard effects including developmental abnormalities and redox balance impairment have been elucidated in aquatic species, but multiple endocrine evaluations are scarce. Therefore, the present study aimed to assess the disruptive physiological effects and toxicity of DCF and IBU isolated and combined, using females of the native freshwater teleost Astyanax lacustris. In regards to NSAIDs bioavailability, the results showed absence of degradation of IBU and DCF after 7 days of exposure. IBU LC50 for A. lacustris was 137 mgL-1 and females exposed to IBU isolated increased thyroxine (T4) concentration at 24 h and decreased after 96 h; DCF exposure decreased triiodothyronine (T3) concentration at 96 h. Circulating levels of 17β-estradiol (E2), cortisol (F) and testosterone (T) were not affected by any treatment. HPG and HPI axis genes fshβ, pomc and vtg were upregulated after 24 h of IBU exposure, and dio2 was downregulated in DCF fish exposed group after 96 h compared to the mixture. Protein concentration was reduced in muscle and increased in the liver by DCF and mixtures exposures at 24 h; while liver lipids were increased in the mixture groups after 96 h. The study point out the capacity of NSAIDs to affect endocrine endpoints in A. lacustris females and induce changes in energetic substrate content after acute exposure to isolated and mixed NSAIDs treatments. Lastly, the present investigation brings new insights into the toxicity and endocrine disruptive activity of NSAIDs in Latin America teleost species and the aquatic environment.

Contaminants of emerging concern: Occurrence, analytical techniques, and removal with electrochemical advanced oxidation processes with special emphasis in Latin America

The occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in environmental systems is gradually more studied worldwide. However, in Latin America, the presence of contaminants of emerging concern, together with their environmental and toxicological impacts, has recently been gaining wide interest in the scientific community. This paper presents a critical review about the source, fate, and occurrence of distinct emerging contaminants reported during the last two decades in various countries of Latin America. In recent years, Brazil, Chile, and Colombia are the main countries that have conducted research on the presence of these pollutants in biological and aquatic compartments. Data gathered indicated that pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and personal care products are the most assessed CECs in Latin America, being the most common compounds the followings: atrazine, acenaphthene, caffeine, carbamazepine, ciprofloxacin, diclofenac, diuron, estrone, losartan, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim. Most common analytical methodologies for identifying these compounds were HPLC and GC coupled with mass spectrometry with the potential to characterize and quantify complex substances in the environment at low concentrations. Most CECs' monitoring and detection were observed near to urban areas which confirm the out-of-date wastewater treatment plants and sanitization infrastructures limiting the removal of these pollutants. Therefore, the implementation of tertiary treatment should be required. In this tenor, this review also summarizes some studies of CECs removal using electrochemical advanced oxidation processes that showed satisfactory performance. Finally, challenges, recommendations, and future perspectives are discussed.

Spatiotemporal distribution and potential risks of antibiotics in coastal water of Beibu Gulf, South China Sea: Livestock and poultry emissions play essential effect

Antibiotics have been the subject of much attention in recent years due to their widespread use and the potential ecological risks and resistance risks. In this study, we conducted an extensive survey of 19 antibiotics in a wide range of waters of the Beibu Gulf during summer and winter (154 samples). The total concentrations of the 19 antibiotics (Σ19ABs, ng/L) were significantly higher in winter (n.d.-364) than in summer (n.d.-70.1) and were mainly concentrated in areas of seagoing rivers (1.50-364). The primary route for antibiotics entering Beibu Gulf was through riverine input. Precisely, florfenicol (FF) (n.d.-278 ng/L) discharged from livestock and poultry farms upstream of Nanliu River, predominantly in swine farming, constitutes the main pollutant in Beibu Gulf throughout the year. The Nanliu River (988 kg/a) accounts for 85% of the gulf's total annual antibiotic emission flux. Source analysis identified livestock and poultry farming, particularly swine farming, as the primary pollution source, contributing 58% in summer. Risk assessment reveals that algae (0.51 ± 0.56) exhibited relatively high sensitivity to antibiotics, presenting a medium-high risk at specific sites in Nanliu River during winter. Additionally, FF discharged from swine farming demonstrates a certain level of antibiotic resistance risk. Therefore, reinforcing control measures for antibiotic discharges from livestock and poultry farming, especially upstream of Nanliu River, can effectively mitigate antibiotic-related risks in the water bodies of Beibu Gulf.

Occurrence of antibiotics, hormones and PFAs in surface water from a Nile tilapia aquaculture facility in a Brazilian hydroelectric reservoir

This study assessed the occurrence of five antibiotics, three hormones, caffeine, and long and short-chain perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in surface water and feedstuff samples obtained from aquaculture cages in Três Marias reservoir in Brazil. This is the first work to evaluate the presence of PFAS in surface water used for aquaculture in Brazil. Solid-phase extraction and low temperature partitioning extraction followed by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) were performed to process and analyze surface water samples and feedstuff, respectively. The ecotoxicological risk quotient was calculated for target compounds detected in water. Ciprofloxacin and caffeine were detected in all surface water samples. Pharmaceutical drugs ranged from 0.7 ng L-1 (trimethoprim) to 389.2 ng L -1 (β-estradiol). Estrone (10.24 ng g-1) and β-estradiol (66.20 ng g-1) were also found in feedstuff. Four PFASs (PFOA, PFDoA, PFTeDA, and PFBS) were detected (9.40-15.2 μg L-1) at levels higher than reported in studies conducted worldwide. Ecotoxicological risk assessment indicated high risks for caffeine and PFOA, PFDoA, and PFTeDA with RQ values from 10 to 103. These findings reveal risks to biodiversity, ecosystem integrity and human health considering possible intake of these contaminants by fish consumption due to potential bioaccumulation of these substances. Hence, it is critical to conduct more studies in this direction in Brazil and other low and middle-low-income countries.

Bibliometric analysis of Advanced Oxidation Processes studies with a focus on Life Cycle Assessment and Costs

Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are wastewater treatment technologies that stand out for their ability to degrade Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs). The literature has extensively investigated these removal processes for different aqueous matrices. Once technically mature, some of these systems have become accredited to be applied on a large scale, and therefore, their systemic performances in the environmental and cost spheres have also become essential requirements. This study proposed corroborating this trend, analyzing the available literature on the subject to verify how experts in the AOP area investigated this integration during 2015-2023. For this purpose, a sample of publications was treated by applying the Systematic Review (SR) methodology. This resulted in an extract of 83 studies that adopted life-cycle logic to estimate environmental impacts and process costs or evaluated them as complementary to the technical dimension of each treatment technology. This analysis found that both dimensions can be used for selecting or sizing AOPs at the design scale. However, the appropriate choice of the impact categories for the environmental assessment and establishing a methodology for cost analysis can make the approach still more effective. In addition, a staggering number of processes would broaden the reality and applicability of the estimates, and adopting multicriteria analysis methodologies could address essential aspects of decision-making processes during the design of the arrangements. By meeting the original purposes, the study broadened the requirements for designing AOPs and disseminating their use in mitigating the discharge of CECs.

Phenolic compounds in water: Review of occurrence, risk, and retention by membrane technology

Phenolic compounds are one of the main contributors to water source contamination worldwide. In this review, the data collected on Elsevier, Scopus, and Pubmed, considering papers published between 2000 and 2023, showed more than 60 different phenols have been identified in water matrix (<0.065-179,000,000 ng L-1). The highest concentration reported was in surface water canals in India. The most recurrent and studied compound was bisphenol A (n = 93) in concentrations ranging from 0.45 to 2,970,000 ng L-1. The solid phase extraction (HBL Oasis cartridge) and methanol as solvent was the method of pre-concentration most used followed by gas chromatography for the determination of phenols in water samples. The importance of drinking water guidelines incorporating more phenolic compounds was emphasized given the variety of these compounds quantified in water matrix. The human health risk assessment (HRA) was performed for the min-max concentrations of the pollutants reported in the literature. High HRA even at the lowest concentrations for 2-nitrophenol, 2,6-dichlorophenol, 3,4,5-trichlorophenol, 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol, and 2,4-dinitrophenol was recognized. The cancer risk estimated was considered possible for 3-methylphenol, 2,4-dimethylphenol, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, pentachlorophenol, and 2,4-dinitrophenol in the highest concentrations. The in-depth discussion of mechanisms, advantages, challenges, and carbon footprint of membrane technologies in water treatment and phenols retention demonstrated the great potential and trends for the production of safe drinking water, highlighting reverse osmosis, as a mature technology, and membrane distillation, as an emergent technology.

Yeast estrogen screen assay applied in the assessment of estrogenic activity removal from dairy cattle wastewater treated by anaerobic digestion

The presence of estrogen-like endocrine disrupting chemicals (EEDC) in surface waters, soils, and groundwater has been frequently reported in the literature. Since these compounds can be excreted by humans and animals, the release of domestic sewage and animal wastewaters may be an important source of EEDC in the environment. In this context, there is a growing concern regarding the presence of these substances in the environment and their potential adverse effects on human health. However, most studies have been focused on the presence of EEDC in domestic wastewaters and the available information regarding EEDC in livestock wastewater is still limited. Therefore, this work aimed to quantify the estrogenic activity (EA) in the liquid phase of dairy cattle wastewaters and evaluate the removal of EA during anaerobic digestion, applying an adapted methodology based on the yeast estrogen screen (YES) assay, which has been widely used to analyze EA in domestic sewage. Influent and effluent dairy cattle wastewater samples from a full-scale anaerobic digester placed in an experimental farm were collected during seven months. EA concentrations in the liquid phase of raw wastewater ranged from 228 to 2182 ng.L-1 E2-eq. Anaerobic digestion was not efficient in EA removal, achieving effluent concentrations ranging from 109 to 946 ng.L-1 E2-eq. Results also indicate that the application of an estradiol-based fixed time artificial insemination protocol did not statistically contribute to the increase of EA concentrations in dairy cattle wastewater which reuse in cleaning of animal feeding operation facilities and fertigation are beneficial and economically advantageous to dairy production systems, reducing water demand in parallel to promoting organic matter and nutrient recycling. However, the potential environmental and health risks associated with the presence of EEDC in dairy cattle wastewaters should be better elucidated and evaluated.

Proposal for priority emerging pollutants in the Nakdong river, Korea: Application of EU watch list mechanisms

The Nakdong River, the longest in Korea, has received numerous pollutants from heavily industrialized and densely populated areas while being used as a drinking water source. A number of research have reported occurrences of emerging pollutants (EPs) in the river. The results requested efficient monitoring and systematic management strategies such as EU watch list under Water Framework Directive. The aim of this study is to propose a watch list through preliminary monitoring of the river and risk-based prioritization approach. As candidates for monitoring target, 632 substances were selected based on literature and database searches. Among them, 175 substances were subjected to target screening method whereas 457 were evaluated via suspect screening. A risk-based prioritization was applied to substances quantified through target screening based on concentrations, and a scoring-based prioritization was applied to substances tentatively identified through suspect screening. Sampling campaigns (n = 12) were conducted from October 2020 to September 2021, at 8 sampling sites along the river. As a result, 130 target substances were quantified above the LOQ. Among the 21 substances whose priority score was assigned through risk-based prioritization, telmisartan and iprobenfos were identified with very high environmental risk while candesartan, TBEP, imidacloprid, azithromycin and clotrimazole were classified with high or intermediate risk. As result of the scoring system for 39 tentatively identified substances, 6 substances (benzophenone, caprolactam, metolachlor oxanilic acid, heptaethylene glycol, octaethylene glycol and pentaethylene glycol), which were then confirmed with reference standards, showed a potential environmental risk. Those substances prioritized through target and suspect screening followed by scoring systems can be a subset for the watch list and potential targets for nationwide water quality monitoring program in the future.

Toxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, and bioaccumulative effects of metal mixture from settleable particulate matter on American bullfrog tadpoles (Lithobates catesbeianus)

Amphibians are more susceptible to environmental stressors than other vertebrates due to their semipermeable skin and physiological adaptations to living in very specific microhabitats. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of a metal mixture from settleable particulate matter (SePM) released from metallurgical industries on Lithobates catesbeianus tadpoles. Endpoints analyzed included metal bioconcentration, morphological (biometrical indices), hematological parameters (hemoglobin and blood cell count), and erythrocyte DNA damage (genotoxicity and mutagenicity). American bullfrog tadpoles (Gosner's stage 25) were kept under control condition (no contaminant addition) or exposed to a sub-lethal and environmentally relevant concentration (1 g.L-1) of SePM for 96 h. Tadpoles exposed to SePM exhibited elevated whole blood levels of Fe56, AL, Sn, Pb, Zn, Cr, Cu, Ti, Rb, V, Ce, La, Ag, As. SePM-exposed tadpoles showed a significant decrease in condition factor (12%) and increases in hepatosomatic index (25%), hemoglobin concentration (17%), and total leukocytes (82%), thrombocytes (90%), and monocytes (78%) abundance. In addition, exposed tadpoles showed higher MN and ENAs (340 and 140%, respectively) frequencies, and erythrocyte DNA damage with approximately 1.2- to 1.8-fold increases in comet parameters. Taken together, these results suggest that the multimetal mixture found in SePM is potentially genotoxic and mutagenic to L. catesbeianus tadpoles, induces stress associated with hematological changes, and negatively affects growth. Although such contamination occurs at sublethal levels, regulatory standards are needed to control the emission of SePM and protect amphibian populations.

Recent Advances on Electrochemical Sensors for Detection of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs)

Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs), a new category of contaminants currently in the limelight, are a major issue of global concern. The pervasive nature of CECs and their harmful effects, such as cancer, reproductive disorders, neurotoxicity, etc., make the situation alarming. The perilous nature of CECs lies in the fact that even very small concentrations of CECs can cause great impacts on living beings. They also have a nature of bioaccumulation. Thus, there is a great need to have efficient sensors for the detection of CECs to ensure a safe living environment. Electrochemical sensors are an efficient platform for CEC detection as they are highly selective, sensitive, stable, reproducible, and prompt, and can detect very low concentrations of the analyte. Major classes of CECs are pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, personal care products, endocrine disruptors, newly registered pesticides, and disinfection by-products. This review focusses on CECs, including their sources and pathways, health effects caused by them, and electrochemical sensors as reported in the literature under each category for the detection of major CECs.

Comparison of 17β-estradiol, bisphenol-A and caffeine concentration levels before and after the water treatment plant

This article compares the concentration levels of 17β-estradiol (E2), bisphenol-A (BPA) and caffeine (CAF) in the Sinos River, Brazil, which is a source of drinking water and the presence of contaminants after the conventional treatment in a municipal water treatment plant (WTP). A total of nine sampling campaigns were carried out, with sample collection in the Sinos River, upstream and downstream of the WTP, in addition to a drinking water sample (DW). The samples were extracted with solid phase extraction (SPE) and the concentration by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The maximum concentration in the Sinos River was 6,127.99 ng·L-1 for E2, 3,294.63 ng·L-1 for BPA and 1,221.95 ng·L-1 for CAF. In drinking water, the concentration range of E2, BPA and CAF was from less than the Detection Limit (DL) up to 437.50 ng·L-1,

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Key Words Collapse

MESH Headings

• Caffeine
• Drinking Water
• Estradiol
• Water Purification/methods

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Affiliation(s)

Graziela Taís Schmitt Civil Engineering Post-Graduate Program, Unisinos University, São Leopoldo, Brazil E-mail:
Marcelo Oliveira Caetano Civil Engineering Post-Graduate Program, Unisinos University, São Leopoldo, Brazil
Vinícius Martins Marques Civil Engineering Post-Graduate Program, Unisinos University, São Leopoldo, Brazil
Amanda Gonçalves Kieling Civil Engineering Post-Graduate Program, Unisinos University, São Leopoldo, Brazil
Marie Launay Institute for Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Solid Waste Management (ISWA), University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
Lilia Itzel Acosta Muñiz Institute for Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Solid Waste Management (ISWA), University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
Luciana Paulo Gomes Civil Engineering Post-Graduate Program, Unisinos University, São Leopoldo, Brazil

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Continuous removal of caffeine in a horizontal-flow anaerobic immobilized biomass bioreactor: identification of transformation products

Anaerobic bioreactors are an efficient technology for the biodegradation of emerging contaminants in environmental matrices. In this work, a horizontal-flow anaerobic immobilized biomass (HAIB) bioreactor was used to remove caffeine (CAF), which is frequently found in various aqueous matrices. The acrylic bench top bioreactor, with dimensions of 100 × 5.00 cm, was operated with a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 12 h, during 45 weeks, under mesophilic conditions. The operation was performed in 4 phases: without CAF addition (phase I); CAF spiked at 300 μg L-1 (phase II); CAF at 600 μg L-1 (phase III); and CAF at 900 μg L-1 (phase IV). Samples of bioreactor influent and effluent were analyzed by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The bioreactor removed organic matter (OM) and CAF with efficiencies of 88 and 93%, respectively. The first-order apparent removal constant (Kapp) values for OM and CAF were 0.419 and 0.304 h-1, respectively. Five transformation products (TPs) were identified, with m/z 243, 227, 211, and 181 (two products). The HAIB bioreactor is a suitable system for the removal of CAF present in wastewater, even at a concentration level of µg L-1.

Electrochemical Determination of 17-β-Estradiol Using a Glassy Carbon Electrode Modified with α-Fe2O3 Nanoparticles Supported on Carbon Nanotubes

In this study, a novel electrochemical assay for determining 17-β-estradiol (E2) was proposed. The approach involves modifying a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) with a nanocomposite consisting of α-Fe2O3 nanoparticles supported on carbon nanotubes (CNTs)-denoted as α-Fe2O3-CNT/GCE. The synthesis of the α-Fe2O3-CNT nanocomposite was achieved through a simple and cost-effective hydrothermal process. Morphological and chemical characterization were conducted using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Raman spectroscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The presence of the α-Fe2O3-CNT film on the GCE surface resulted in an enhanced electrochemical response to E2, preventing electrode surface fouling and mitigating the decrease in peak current intensity during E2 oxidation. These outcomes substantiate the rationale behind the GCE modification. After the optimization of experimental conditions, E2 was determined by the square wave voltammetry technique using 0.1 mol L-1 KCl solution (pH = 7.0) with 20% ethanol as a supporting electrolyte. A linear concentration range of 5.0-100.0 nmol L-1 and a low limit of detection of 4.4 nmol L-1 were obtained. The electroanalytical method using α-Fe2O3-CNT/GCE was applied for E2 determination in pharmaceutical, lake water, and synthetic urine samples. The obtained results were attested by recovery tests and by high-performance liquid chromatography as a comparative technique at a 95% confidence level. Thus, the developed electrochemical sensor is simple and fast to obtain, presents high accuracy, and is viable for determining E2 in routine analysis.

The Synthesis and Evaluation of Porous Carbon Material from Corozo Fruit (Bactris guineensis) for Efficient Propranolol Hydrochloride Adsorption

This study explores the potential of the corozo fruit (Bactris guineensis) palm tree in the Colombian Caribbean as a source for porous carbon material. Its specific surface area, pore volume, and average pore size were obtained using N₂ adsorption/desorption isotherms. The images of the precursor and adsorbent surface were obtained using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra were obtained to detect the main functional groups present and an X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) was performed in order to analyze the structural organization of the materials. By carbonizing the fruit stone with zinc chloride, a porous carbon material was achieved with a substantial specific surface area (1125 m² g⁻¹) and pore volume (3.241 × 10-¹ cm³ g⁻¹). The material was tested for its adsorption capabilities of the drug propranolol. The optimal adsorption occurred under basic conditions and at a dosage of 0.7 g L⁻¹. The Langmuir homogeneous surface model effectively described the equilibrium data and, as the temperature increased, the adsorption capacity improved, reaching a maximum of 134.7 mg g⁻¹ at 328.15 K. The model constant was favorable to the temperature increase, increasing from 1.556 × 10^-1 to 2.299 × 10^-1 L mg^-1. Thermodynamically, the adsorption of propranolol was found to be spontaneous and benefited from higher temperatures, indicating an endothermic nature (12.39 kJ mol⁻¹). The negative ΔG⁰ values decreased from -26.28 to -29.99 kJ mol^-1, with the more negative value occurring at 328 K. The adsorbent material exhibited rapid kinetics, with equilibrium times ranging from 30 to 120 min, depending on the initial concentration. The kinetics data were well-represented by the general order and linear driving force models. The rate constant of the general order model diminished from 1.124 × 10^-3 to 9.458 × 10^-14 with an increasing concentration. In summary, the leftover stone from the Bactris guineensis plant can be utilized to develop activated carbon, particularly when activated using zinc chloride. This material shows promise for efficiently adsorbing propranolol and potentially other emerging pollutants.

Correlation between caffeine and coprostanol in contrasting Amazonian water bodies

The evaluation of contamination by domestic sewage is relevant in the Amazon region; however, it has neither been well-developed nor accompanied by research or monitoring programs. In this study, caffeine and coprostanol as indicators of sewage were investigated in water samples from Amazonian water bodies that crisscross the city of Manaus (Amazonas state, Brazil) and cover regions with distinct main land uses such as high-density residential, low-density residential, commercial, industrial, and environmental protection areas. Thirty-one water samples were studied based on their dissolved and particulate organic matter (DOM and POM) fractions. Quantitative determination of both caffeine and coprostanol was carried out using LC-MS/MS with APCI in the positive ionization mode. The streams of the urban area of Manaus had the highest concentrations of caffeine (1.47-69.65 μg L^-1) and coprostanol (2.88-46.92 μg L^-1). Samples from the peri-urban Tarumã-Açu stream and from the streams in the Adolpho Ducke Forest Reserve showed much lower concentrations of caffeine (20.20-165.78 ng L^-1) and coprostanol (31.49-120.44 ng L^-1). Samples from the Negro River showed a wider range of concentrations of caffeine (20.59-873.59 ng L^-1) and coprostanol (31.72-706.46 ng L^-1), with the highest values found in the outfalls of the urban streams. Levels of caffeine and coprostanol were significantly positively correlated in the different organic matter fractions. The coprostanol/(coprostanol + cholestanol) ratio proved to be a more suitable parameter than the coprostanol/cholesterol one in low-density residential areas. Proximity to densely populated areas and the flow of water bodies appear to influence the caffeine and coprostanol concentrations, which was observed in their clustering in the multivariate analysis. The results indicate that caffeine and coprostanol can be detected even in water bodies that receive very low domestic sewage input. Therefore, this study revealed that both caffeine in DOM and coprostanol in POM represent viable alternatives for use in studies and monitoring programs even in remote areas of the Amazon, where microbiological analyses are often unfeasible.

Genotoxicity of surface waters in Brazil

Brazil has abundant surface water resources, huge aquatic biodiversity and is home to 213 million people. Genotoxicity assays are sensitive tools to detect the effects of contaminants in surface waters and wastewaters, as well as to determine potential risks of contaminated waters to aquatic organisms and human health. This work aimed to survey the articles published in 2000-2021 that evaluated the genotoxicity of surface waters within Brazilian territory to unveil the profile and trends of this topic over time. In our searches, we considered articles focused on assessing aquatic biota, articles that conducted experiments with caged organisms or standardized tests in the aquatic sites, as well as articles that transported water or sediment samples from aquatic sites to the laboratory, where exposures were performed with organisms or standardized tests. We retrieved geographical information on the aquatic sites evaluated, the genotoxicity assays used, the percentage of genotoxicity detected, and, when possible, the causative agent of aquatic pollution. A total of 248 articles were identified. There was a trend of increase in the number of publications and annual diversity of hydrographic regions evaluated over time. Most articles focused on rivers from large metropolises. A very low number of articles were conducted on coastal and marine ecosystems. Water genotoxicity was detected in most articles, regardless of methodological approach, even in little-studied hydrographic regions. The micronucleus test and the alkaline comet assay were widely applied with blood samples, mainly derived from fish. Allium and Salmonella tests were the most frequently used standard protocols. Despite most articles did not confirm polluting sources and genotoxic agents, the detection of genotoxicity provides useful information for the management of water pollution. We discuss key points to be assessed to reach a more complete picture of the genotoxicity of surface waters in Brazil.

Euterpe oleracea-based biochar for clonazepam adsorption: synthesis, characterization, adsorption properties, and toxicity assays

The consumption of açaí fruit (Euterpe oleracea) has largely increased worldwide, resulting in a significant increase in the demand for its pulp. As a result, the small producing communities end up with large amounts of açaí endocarp residues, creating local environmental pollution problems. Therefore, chemical and physical routes were investigated for producing açaí endocarp adsorbents to propose a locally viable solution for this problem. The adsorption properties of the produced biochars were tested for clonazepam (CZM) removal, and the toxicity of the final solutions was evaluated. The results revealed that the chemical route generated biochar with about twice the surface area and pore volume (762 m² g^-1 and 0.098 cm³ g^-1) than the physical route (498 m² g^-1 and 0.048 cm³ g^-1). Furthermore, the Sips isotherm better described the CZM adsorption equilibrium for both biochars, with q_s values of 26.94 and 61.86 mg g^-1 for the physical- and chemical-activated adsorbents. Moreover, recycling studies were performed, and the chemical-activated biochar was stable for up to three cycles, reaching removal rates superior to 80%. Besides, the final toxicity decreased after the adsorptive treatment. Therefore, chemical activation can be used as a simple and effective method for producing stable and compelling adsorbents as an elegant way of adding value to the residues from açaí production, helping solve local environmental problems.

Elucidating the Effects of the Lipids Regulators Fibrates and Statins on the Health Status of Finfish Species: A Review

The most documented fibrates are gemfibrozil, clofibrate and bezafibrate, while for statins, the majority of the published literature focuses on atorvastatin and simvastatin. The present work reviews previously published research concerning the effects of these hypocholesterolaemic pharmaceuticals on fish, with a particular focus on commercially important species, commonly produced by the European aquaculture industry, specifically in recirculated aquaculture systems (RAS). Overall, results suggest that both acute and chronic exposures to lipid-lowering compounds may have adverse effects on fish, disrupting their capacity to excrete exogenous substances, as well as both lipid metabolism and homeostasis, causing severe ontogenetic and endocrinological abnormalities, leading to hampered reproductive success (e.g., gametogenesis, fecundity), and skeletal or muscular malformations, having serious repercussions on fish health and welfare. Nonetheless, the available literature focusing on the effects of statins or fibrates on commonly farmed fish is still limited, and further research is required to understand the implications of this matter on aquaculture production, global food security and, ultimately, human health.

Recent advances in application of heterogeneous electro-Fenton catalysts for degrading organic contaminants in water

Over the last decades, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been widely used in surface and ground water pollution control. The heterogeneous electro-Fenton (EF) process has gained much attention due to its properties of high catalytic performance, no generation of iron sludge, and good recyclability of catalyst. As of October 2022, the cited papers and publications of EF are around 1.3 × 10^-5 and 3.4 × 10^-3 in web of science. Among the AOP techniques, the contaminant removal efficiencies by EF process are above 90% in most studies. Current reviews mainly focused on the mechanism of EF and few reviews comprehensively summarized heterogeneous catalysts and their applications in wastewater treatment. Thus, this review focuses on the current studies covering the period 2012-2022, and applications of heterogeneous catalysts in EF process. Two kinds of typical heterogeneous EF systems (the addition of solid catalysts and the functionalized cathode catalysts) and their applications for organic contaminants degradation in water are reviewed. In detail, solid catalysts, including iron minerals, iron oxide-based composites, and iron-free catalysts, are systematically described. Different functionalized cathode materials, containing Fe-based cathodes, carbonaceous-based cathodes, and heteroatom-doped cathodes, are also reviewed. Finally, emphasis and outlook are made on the future prospects and challenges of heterogeneous EF catalyst for wastewater treatments.

Contaminants of emerging concerns (CECs) in a municipal wastewater treatment plant in Indonesia

This study provides the first set of quantitative data on the occurrence and fate of a wide range of contaminants of emerging concerns (CECs) in Indonesia's largest wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). The WWTP employs waste stabilization ponds (WSPs) as the secondary treatment before discharging the effluent to the Citarum River. Fourteen out of twenty-two monitored CECs were detected in the wastewater influent, and seven were present in the effluent, with a total concentration of 29.8 ± 0.4 µg/L and 0.5 ± 0.0 µg/L, respectively. The occurrence of the CECs in this study was found to be well correlated with their possible use and known detection in surface waters in Indonesia. Caffeine (CAF) at 12.2 ± 0.1 µg/L, acetaminophen (ACT) at 9.1 ± 0.1 µg/L, N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET) at 5.0 ± 0.1 µg/L, ibuprofen (IBU) at 2.3 ± 0.0 µg/L, and triclosan (TCS) at 470 ± 64 ng/L were discovered as the five most prevalent CECs, followed by bisphenol A (BPA), trimethoprim (TMP), Tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), sulfamethazine (SMZ), carbamazepine (CBZ), fluoxetine (FLX), benzotriazole (BTA), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), and metformin (METF). Biodegradable CECs (SMX, SMZ, ACT, IBU, TCS, BPA, CAF, DEET, and TMP) were efficiently removed (83-100%) by the WSP. In contrast, recalcitrant CECs achieved poor removal efficiencies (e.g., FLX at 24%), and for others, treatment processes even resulted in elevated concentrations in the effluent (CBZ by 85%, TCEP by 149%, and BTA by 92%). The CECs' influent concentrations were determined to pose a moderate aquatic cumulative risk, while no such risk was associated with their effluent concentrations. The study demonstrates the importance of conventional WWTPs in reducing the concentrations of CECs to minimize their aquatic contamination risk. The findings are relevant for countries, such as Indonesia, with limited resources for advanced centralized wastewater treatments, and which are exploring the efficacy of centralized WSP against the existing decentralized treatments.

Challenges on solar oxidation as post-treatment of municipal wastewater from UASB systems: Treatment efficiency, disinfection and toxicity

The application of solar photo-Fenton as post-treatment of municipal secondary effluents (MSE) in developing tropical countries is the main topic of this review. Alternative technologies such as stabilization ponds and upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) are vastly applied in these countries. However, data related to the application of solar photo-Fenton to improve the quality of effluents from UASB systems are scarce. This review gathered main achievements and limitations associated to the application of solar photo-Fenton at neutral pH and at pilot scale to analyze possible challenges associated to its application as post-treatment of MSE generated by alternative treatments. To this end, the literature review considered studies published in the last decade focusing on CECs removal, toxicity reduction and disinfection via solar photo-Fenton. Physicochemical characteristics of effluents originated after UASB systems alone and followed by a biological post-treatment show significant difference when compared with effluents from conventional activated sludge (CAS) systems. Results obtained for solar photo-Fenton as post-treatment of MSE in developed countries indicate that remaining organic matter and alkalinity present in UASB effluents may pose challenges to the performance of solar advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). This drawback could result in a more toxic effluent. The use of chelating agents such as Fe³⁺-EDDS to perform solar photo-Fenton at neutral pH was compared to the application of intermittent additions of Fe²⁺ and both of these strategies were reported as effective to remove CECs from MSE. The latter strategy may be of greater interest in developing countries due to costs associated to complexing agents. In addition, more studies are needed to confirm the efficiency of solar photo-Fenton on the disinfection of effluent from UASB systems to verify reuse possibilities. Finally, future research urges to evaluate the efficiency of solar photo-Fenton at natural pH for the treatment of effluents from UASB systems.

Surface water contamination from pesticide mixtures and risks to aquatic life in a high-input agricultural region of Brazil

The environmental risks of pesticides found in surface waters of an important agricultural basin in Brazil were estimated by adopting two approaches: individual pesticides risk quotients (RQ) and concentration addition model for pesticide mixtures (∑RQs) contained in each water sample. Monitoring was carried out in the Mogi Guaçu River basin, Brazil, from October 2017 to May 2018. Four sampling points were selected in the Mogi Guaçu River and seven in its tributaries A multiresidue method with solid-phase extraction and subsequent analysis by UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS was developed to quantify 19 pesticides. Herbicides, except for simazine, presented the highest detection frequencies with values above 70%. Tebuthiuron was found in all 55 analyzed samples, presenting the highest concentration (6437 ng L^-1) over the monitoring period. Fungicides and insecticides showed similar detection frequency (DF) values, ranging from 1.8% to 21.8%. Tebuconazole and carbofuran were the fungicides and insecticides most frequently detected, respectively. January 2018 sampling showed the highest total concentration of pesticides, differing from March 2018 and May 2018 (p < 0.05). The MG2 > TMG8 > MG1 > TMG6 sites showed the highest concentration total of pesticides while MG4 > TMG4 > TMG3 (p < 0.05) sites showed the lowest values: MG4 > TMG4 > TMG3 (p < 0.05). Most pesticide occurrences presented no risks to aquatic organisms. Only 19 out of the 175 pesticide occurrences > LOQ presented individual risks to aquatic biota. Contrary to the results obtained by the individual risk assessment, most pesticide mixtures presented risks to aquatic biota. In 36 out of the 55 samples analyzed during monitoring, pesticide mixtures presented risks to aquatic life.

Legacy and emerging pollutants in Latin America: A critical review of occurrence and levels in environmental and food samples

The increase and indiscriminate use of personal care products, food products, fertilizers, pesticides, and health products, among others, have resulted/are resulting in extensive environmental contamination. Most of these products contain traces of widespread chemicals, usually known as emerging pollutants (EPs) or pollutants of emerging concern (PEC). The Latin American (LA) region comprises 20 countries with different social and cultural aspects, with 81 % of the population living in urban areas. The LA region has some countries on the top list of users/consumers of EPs, from pesticides and fertilizers to personal care products. However, there is a gap in information related to the distribution of EPs in the environment of this region, with very few existing review texts exploring this issue. Therefore, this present paper advances this approach. An exhaustive literature review, with the selection of 176 documents, provided unique up-to-date information on the presence/distribution of 17 classes of legacy or emerging pollutants in different food and environmental matrices (soil, sediment, water, and air). The study shows that the wide distribution and recorded levels of these pollutants in the continental environment are potential risks to human health, mainly through food and drinking water ingestion. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are pollutants of deep public concern since they show carcinogenic properties. Several classes of pollutants, like endocrine disruptors, have caused harmful effects on humans and the environment. Besides that, pharmaceutical products and pesticides are compounds of high consumption worldwide, being environmental contamination a real and ongoing possibility. Finally, gaps and future research needs are deeply pointed out.

Updated knowledge, partitioning and ecological risk of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in global aquatic environments

Over the last few decades, the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in aquatic environments has generated increasing public concern. In this review, data on the presence of PPCPs in environmental compartments from the past few years (2014-2022) are summarized by carrying out a critical survey of the partitioning among water, sediment, and aquatic organisms. From the available articles on PPCP occurrence in the environment, in Web of Science and Scopus databases, 185 articles were evaluated. Diclofenac, carbamazepine, caffeine, ibuprofen, ciprofloxacin, and sulfamethoxazole were reported to occur in 85% of the studies in at least one of the mentioned matrices. Risk assessment showed a moderate to high environmental risk for these compounds worldwide. Moreover, bioconcentration factors showed that sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim can bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms, while ciprofloxacin and triclosan present bioaccumulation potential. Regarding spatial distribution, the Asian and European continents presented most studies on the occurrence and effects of PPCPs on the environment, while Africa and Asia are the most contaminated continents. In addition, the impact of COVID-19 on environmental contamination by PPCPs is discussed.

Engineered microbes as effective tools for the remediation of polyaromatic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals

Heavy metals (HMs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have become a major concern to human health and the environment due to rapid industrialization and urbanization. Traditional treatment measures for removing toxic substances from the environment have largely failed, and thus development and advancement in newer remediation techniques are of utmost importance. Rising environmental pollution with HMs and PAHs prompted the research on microbes and the development of genetically engineered microbes (GEMs) for reducing pollution via the bioremediation process. The enzymes produced from a variety of microbes can effectively treat a range of pollutants, but evolutionary trends revealed that various emerging pollutants are resistant to microbial or enzymatic degradation. Naturally, existing microbes can be engineered using various techniques including, gene engineering, directed evolution, protein engineering, media engineering, strain engineering, cell wall modifications, rationale hybrid design, and encapsulation or immobilization process. The immobilization of microbes and enzymes using a variety of nanomaterials, membranes, and supports with high specificity toward the emerging pollutants is also an effective strategy to capture and treat the pollutants. The current review focuses on successful bioremediation techniques and approaches that make use of GEMs or engineered enzymes. Such engineered microbes are more potent than natural strains and have greater degradative capacities, as well as rapid adaptation to various pollutants as substrates or co-metabolizers. The future for the implementation of genetic engineering to produce such organisms for the benefit of the environment andpublic health is indeed long and valuable.

Spatiotemporal occurrence of phthalate esters in stormwater drains of Hong Kong, China: Mass loading and source identification

Urban stormwater is an important pathway for transporting anthropogenic pollutants to water bodies. Phthalate esters (PAEs) are endocrine disruptors owing to their estrogenic activity and potential carcinogenicity and their ubiquitous presence has garnered global interest. However, their transportation by urban stormwater has been largely overlooked. This study, for the first time, investigated 15 PAEs in stormwater from six major stormwater drains in the highly urbanized Hong Kong, a major metropolitan city in China. The results showed that PAEs were ubiquitous in the stormwater of Hong Kong, with total concentrations (∑₁₅PAEs) spanning from 195 to 80,500 ng/L. Bis(2-n-butoxyethyl) phthalate (DBEP), diisopentyl phthalate (DiPP), dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP) and di-n-pentyl phthalate (DnPP) were detected in stormwater for the first time. Spatial variations in PAEs were observed among different stormwater drains, possibly due to the different land use patterns and intensities of human activities in their respective catchments. The highest and lowest levels of ∑₁₅PAEs were found in Kwai Chung (3860 ± 1960 ng/L) and the Ng Tung River (672 ± 557 ng/L), respectively. Additionally, significantly higher concentrations of ∑₁₅PAEs in stormwater were found in the wet season (2520 ± 2050 ng/L) than in the dry season (947 ± 904 ng/L). Principal component analysis classified domestic and industrial origins as two important sources of PAEs in the stormwater of Hong Kong. Stormwater played a crucial role in transporting PAEs, with an estimated annual flux of 0.705-29.4 kg. Thus, possible stormwater management measures were proposed to protect the receiving environment and local ecosystems from stormwater.

Removal of micropollutants by UASB reactor and post-treatment by Fenton and photo-Fenton: Matrix effect and toxicity responses

Literature is scarce on the performance of Fenton-based processes as post-treatment of municipal wastewater treated by upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor. This study aims to perform Fenton and photo-Fenton from UASB influent and effluent matrices to remove micropollutants (MPs) models: atrazine (ATZ), rifampicin (RIF), and 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2). A UASB reactor at bench-scale (14 L) was operated with these MPs, and the AOPs experiments at bench-scale were performed on a conventional photochemical reactor (1 L). A high-pressure vapor mercury lamp was used for photo-Fenton process (UVA-Vis) as a radiation source. Microcrustacean Daphnia magna (acute toxicity) and seeds of Lactuca sativa (phytotoxicity) were indicator organisms for toxicity monitoring. The UASB reactor showed stability removing 90% of the mean chemical oxygen demand, and removal efficiencies for ATZ, RIF, and EE2 were 16.5%, 45.9%, and 15.7%, respectively. A matrix effect was noted regarding the application of both Fenton and photo-Fenton in UASB influent and effluent to remove MPs and toxicity responses. The pesticide ATZ was the most recalcitrant compound, yet the processes carried out from UASB effluent achieved removal >99.99%. The post-treatment of the UASB reactor by photo-Fenton removed acute toxicity in D. magna for all treatment times. However, only the photo-Fenton conducted for 90 min did not result in a phytotoxic effect in L. sativa.

A review toward contaminants of emerging concern in Brazil: Occurrence, impact and their degradation by advanced oxidation process in aquatic matrices

This work presents data regarding the occurrence and treatment of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) in Brazil in the past decade. The literature review (2011-2021) revealed the detection of 87 pharmaceutical drugs and personal care products, 58 pesticides, 8 hormones, 2 illicit drugs, caffeine and bisphenol A in distinct matrices (i.e.: wastewater, groundwater, sea water, rainwater, surface water, drinking water and hospital effluent). Concentrations of CECs varied from ng-μg L^-1 depending on the location, compound and matrix. The inefficiency of conventional wastewater treatment methods on the removal of CECs and lack of basic sanitation in some regions in the country aggravates contamination of Brazilian aquatic environments and poses potential environmental and health risks. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are pointed out as viable and efficient alternatives to degrade CECs and prevent environmental contamination. A total of 375 studies involving the use of AOPs in Brazilian aqueous matrices were published in the last decade. Fenton and photo-Fenton processes, photo-peroxidation, ozonation, electrochemical advanced oxidation and heterogeneous photocatalysis are some of the AOPs applied by Brazilian research groups. Although many works discuss the importance of applying these technologies for CECs removal in real treatment plants, most of these studies assess the treatment of distilled water or simulated effluent. Therefore, the conduction of studies applying AOPs in real matrices are critical to drive the implementation of these processes coupled to conventional water and wastewater treatment in real plants in order to prevent the contamination of environmental matrices by CECs in Brazil.

Environmental photochemical fate of pesticides ametryn and imidacloprid in surface water (Paranapanema River, São Paulo, Brazil)

In addition to direct photolysis studies, in this work the second-order reaction rate constants of pesticides imidacloprid (IMD) and ametryn (AMT) with hydroxyl radicals (HO^●), singlet oxygen (¹O₂), and triplet excited states of chromophoric dissolved organic matter (³CDOM^*) were determined by kinetic competition under sunlight. IMD and AMT exhibited low photolysis quantum yields: (1.23 ± 0.07) × 10^-2 and (7.99 ± 1.61) × 10^-3 mol Einstein^-1, respectively. In contrast, reactions with HO^● radicals and ³CDOM* dominate their degradation, with ¹O₂ exhibiting rates three to five orders of magnitude lower. The values of k_IMD,HO● and k_AMT,HO● were (3.51 ± 0.06) × 10⁹ and (4.97 ± 0.37) × 10⁹ L mol^-1 s^-1, respectively, while different rate constants were obtained using anthraquinone-2-sulfonate (AQ2S) or 4-carboxybenzophenone (CBBP) as CDOM proxies. For IMD this difference was significant, with k_IMD,3AQ2S* = (1.02 ± 0.08) × 10⁹ L mol^-1 s^-1 and k_IMD,3CBBP* = (3.17 ± 0.14) × 10⁸ L mol^-1 s^-1; on the contrary, the values found for AMT are close, k_AMT,3AQ2S* = (8.13 ± 0.35) × 10⁸ L mol^-1 s^-1 and k_AMT,3CBBP* = (7.75 ± 0.80) × 10⁸ L mol^-1 s^-1. Based on these results, mathematical simulations performed with the APEX model for typical levels of water constituents (NO₃^-, NO₂^-, CO₃^2-, TOC, pH) indicate that the half-lives of these pesticides should vary between 24.1 and 18.8 days in the waters of the Paranapanema River (São Paulo, Brazil), which can therefore be impacted by intensive agricultural activity in the region.