Dynamic nuclear polarization properties of nitroxyl radicals used in Overhauser-enhanced MRI for simultaneous molecular imaging

Research and Development of Preclinical Overhauser-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Significance: Imaging free radicals, including reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species, can be useful for understanding the pathology of diseases in animal disease models, as they are related to various physiological functions or diseases. Among the methods used for imaging free radicals, Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (OMRI) has a short image acquisition time and high spatial resolution. Therefore, OMRI is used to obtain various biological parameters. In this study, we review the methodology for improving the biological OMRI system and its applications. Recent Advances: The sensitivity of OMRI systems has been enhanced significantly to allow the visualization of various biological parameters, such as redox state, partial oxygen pressure, and pH, in different body parts of small animals, using spin probes. Furthermore, both endogenous free radicals and exogenous free radicals present in drugs can be visualized using OMRI. Critical Issues: To acquire accurate biological parameters at a high resolution, it is essential to increase the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) excitation efficiency and achieve a high enhancement factor. In addition, the size and magnetic field strength also need to be optimized for the measurement target. Future Directions: The advancement of in vivo OMRI techniques will be useful for understanding the pathology, diagnosis, and evaluation of therapeutic effects of drugs in various disease models. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 37, 1094-1110.

Imaging analysis for multiple paramagnetic agents using OMRI and electrophoresis

Nitroxides have been widely used as a molecular probe for analysis of various diseases models. This article describes an analytical method for separation and semi-quantification of multiple paramagnetic contrast agents with simple procedure combining electrophoresis and Overhauser enhancement magnetic resonance imaging (OMRI) imaging. We used three nitroxides, 3-carbamoyl PROXYL, 3-carboxy PROXYL, and CAT-1, which have different ionic charges in the molecule. In addition, we showed that this method could apply for in vitro measurement using biological sample. The results showed the nitroxides were successfully separated with electrophoresis depending on their charge, and their separation was visualized with OMRI after electrophoresis. Vehicle media such as whole blood did not affect the electrophoresis results and OMRI enhancement factor. Thus, the method can be used to analyze the redox status of biological samples without preprocessing. This analytical method enables in vitro measurement of biological samples to determine the redox status of specific tissue layers using paramagnetic agents, which is helpful for detailed analysis of redox-related diseases.

Development and Preclinical Study of Free Radical Imaging Using Field-Cycling Dynamic Nuclear Polarization MRI

Free radicals, such as metabolic intermediates, reactive oxygen species, and metal enzymes, are key substances in organisms, although they can also cause various oxidative diseases. Thus, in vivo free radical imaging should be considered as the ultimate form of metabolic imaging. Unfortunately, electron spin resonance (ESR) imaging has inherent disadvantages, such as free radicals with large linewidths generating blurred images and the presence of two or more free radicals resulting in a complicated imaging procedure. Dynamic nuclear polarization-magnetic resonance imaging (DNP-MRI) is a noninvasive imaging method to visualize in vivo free radicals, theoretically, with the same resolution as the MRI anatomical resolution, and fixed low-field DNP-MRI provides unique information on oxidative diseases and cancer. However, the large gyromagnetic ratio of the electron spin, which is 660-fold greater than that of a proton, requires field cycling, wherein the external magnetic field should be varied during DNP-MRI observations. This causes difficulties in developing a DNP-MRI system for clinical purposes. We developed a novel field-cycling DNP-MRI system for a preclinical study. In the said system, the magnetic field is switched by rotationally moving two magnets, with a magnetic flux density of 0.3 T for MRI and 5 mT for ESR. The image quality was examined using various pulse sequences and ESR irradiation using nitroxyl radical as the phantom, and the optimum conditions were established. Using the system, we performed a preclinical study involving free radical imaging by placing the free radicals under the palm of a human hand.

In vivo redox imaging of dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis in mice using Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging

In ulcerative colitis, an inflammatory bowel disease of unknown cause, diagnosis of the degree and location of colitis at an early stage is required to control the symptoms. Changes in redox status, including the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), have been associated with ulcerative colitis in humans and dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis in rodents. In this study, the in vivo redox status of colons of DSS-induced colitis mice were monitored by Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (OMRI), and the relationship between redox status and colitis development was investigated. Colitis was induced by administering 5% DSS in drinking water to male Slc:ICR mice, which are a strain classified as closed colony outbred mice (5-week-old, 25-30 g). On the 3rd day of the DSS challenge, when no symptoms of colitis were displayed, the contrast decays of ¹⁵N-CmP and ¹⁴N-CxP tended to show enhancement in the whole colon and were not altered by DMSO. On the 5th day of the DSS challenge, with histological damage of the rectum being displayed, the contrast decay of ¹⁵N-CmP was significantly enhanced not only in the rectum, but also in the proximal colon, and this was suppressed by DMSO. On the 7th day of the DSS challenge, with the mice displaying severe colitis symptoms, the image contrasts of ¹⁵N-labeled 3-carbamoyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrrolidine-1-oxyl (¹⁵N-CmP) and ¹⁴N-labeled 3-carboxyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrrolidine-1-oxyl (¹⁴N-CxP) showed much faster decay than those of healthy mice, while the increased decays of both probes were restored by the membrane-permeable reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). Image differencing between the decay rate images of ¹⁵N-CmP and ¹⁴N-CxP showed the DSS-induced redox imbalance spreading over the whole colon, and a histogram of the difference image showed a smaller peak and broader distribution with the DSS treatment. These data indicate that ROS are produced intracellularly in the distal and proximal colon in the initiation stage of DSS-induced colitis, and that ROS are produced intracellularly and extracellularly in the advanced stage of DSS-induced colitis.

Apparatus and method for efficient sampling of critical parameters demonstrated by monitoring an Overhauser geomagnetic sensor

The polarization frequency of free radical solution in Overhauser geomagnetic sensor determines the quality of the Larmor precession signal generated by the sensor. To obtain the polarization frequency accurately, a test apparatus was designed in this paper, which can overcome existing problems in the presently used apparatuses, such as lower resolution, complex operation, etc. The proposed apparatus adopts a high-resolution direct digital synthesis as the controllable radio frequency (RF) signal source. Meanwhile, an analog-to-digital converter synchronization acquisition technology combined with a normalization approach is proposed, which effectively solves the problem of the uneven amplitude-frequency characteristic in the range of 50 MHz-100 MHz. Moreover, the apparatus is integrated by adopting the RF power and applying the weak signal amplifier as an auxiliary measurement channel. The equivalent circuit of the sensors resonant cavity was simulated, and the efficiency curve of the adjustable capacitors to the resonant frequency and the quality factor were obtained. The simulated results were further verified by testing the resonance cavity characteristics of a commercial Overhauser geomagnetic sensor under different conditions. Furthermore, the relationship between the polarization degree of the free radical solution and RF excitation power and time were also obtained. The testing methods and results were given, and the experimental data were analyzed. Finally, the experimental results demonstrate that the proposed apparatus can measure the polarization frequency of the free radical solution, the bandwidth, and the quality factor, accurately. Furthermore, it can be used for the determination of the polarization power and time during the design process for an Overhauser magnetometer.

Low-frequency ESR studies on permeable and impermeable deuterated nitroxyl radicals in corn oil solution

Low-frequency electron spin resonance studies were performed for 2 mM concentration of deuterated permeable and impermeable nitroxyl spin probes, 3-methoxycarbonyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-pyrrolidine-1-oxyl and 3-carboxy-2,2,5,5,-tetramethyl-1-pyrrolidinyloxy in pure water and various concentrations of corn oil solution. The electron spin resonance parameters such as the line width, hyperfine coupling constant, g factor, rotational correlation time, permeability, and partition parameter were estimated. The broadening of line width was observed for nitroxyl radicals in corn oil mixture. The rotational correlation time increases with increasing concentration of corn oil, which indicates the less mobile nature of spin probe in corn oil mixture. The membrane permeability and partition parameter values were estimated as a function of corn oil concentration, which reveals that the nitroxyl radicals permeate equally into the aqueous phase and oil phase at the corn oil concentration of 50%. The electron spin resonance spectra demonstrate the permeable and impermeable nature of nitroxyl spin probes. From these results, the corn oil concentration was optimized as 50% for phantom studies. In this work, the corn oil and pure water mixture phantom models with various viscosities correspond to plasma membrane, and whole blood membrane with different hematocrit levels was studied for monitoring the biological characteristics and their interactions with permeable nitroxyl spin probe. These results will be useful for the development of electron spin resonance and Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging modalities in biomedical applications.

Dynamic nuclear polarization studies on deuterated nitroxyl spin probes

Detailed dynamic nuclear polarization and electron spin resonance studies were carried out for 3-carbamoyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-pyrrolidine-1-oxyl, 3-carboxy-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-pyrrolidine-1-oxyl,3-methoxycarbonyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethy pyrolidine-1-oxyl nitroxyl radicals and their corresponding deuterated nitroxyl radicals, used in Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging for the first time. The dynamic nuclear polarization parameters such as dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) factor, longitudinal relaxivity, saturation parameter, leakage factor and coupling factor were estimated for deuterated nitroxyl radicals. DNP enhancement increases with agent concentration up to 3 mm and decreases above 3 mm. The proton spin-lattice relaxation time and the longitudinal relaxivity parameters were estimated. The leakage factor increases with increasing agent concentration up to 3 mm and reaches plateau in the region 3-5 mm. The coupling parameter shows the interaction between the electron and nuclear spins to be mainly dipolar in origin. DNP spectrum exhibits that the full width at half maximum values are higher for undeuterated nitroxyl radicals compared with deuterated nitroxyl radicals, which leads to the increase in DNP enhancement. The ESR parameters such as, the line width, line shape, signal intensity ratio, rotational correlation time, hyperfine coupling constant and g-factor were calculated. The narrow line width was observed for deuterated nitroxyl radicals compared with undeuterated nitroxyl radicals, which leads to the higher saturation parameter value and DNP enhancement. The novelty of the work permits clear understanding of the DNP parameters determining the higher DNP enhancement compared with the undeuterated nitroxyl radicals. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Electron spin resonance studies on deuterated nitroxyl spin probes used in Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging

The electron spin resonance studies were carried out for 2 mm concentration of ¹⁴ N-labeled and ¹⁵ N-labeled 3-carbamoyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-pyrrolidine-1-oxyl, 3-carboxy-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-pyrrolidine-1-oxyl, 3-methoxycarbonyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-pyrrolidine-1-oxyl and their deuterated nitroxyl radicals using X-band electron spin resonance spectrometer. The electron spin resonance line shape analysis was carried out. The electron spin resonance parameters such as linewidth, Lorentzian component, signal intensity ratio, rotational correlation time, hyperfine coupling constant and g-factor were estimated. The deuterated nitroxyl radicals have narrow linewidth and an increase in Lorentzian component, compared with undeuterated nitroxyl radicals. The dynamic nuclear polarization factor was observed for all nitroxyl radicals. Upon ² H labeling, about 70% and 40% increase in dynamic nuclear polarization factor were observed for ¹⁴ N-labeled and ¹⁵ N-labeled nitroxyl radicals, respectively. The signal intensity ratio and g-value indicate the isotropic nature of the nitroxyl radicals in pure water. Therefore, the deuterated nitroxyl radicals are suitable spin probes for in vivo/in vitro electron spin resonance and Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging modalities. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Concentration dependence of nitroxyl spin probes in liposomal solution: electron spin resonance and overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance studies

In this work, the detailed studies of electron spin resonance (ESR) and overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (OMRI) were carried out for permeable nitroxyl spin probe, MC-PROXYL as a function of agent concentration in liposomal solution. In order to compare the impermeable nature of nitroxyl radical, the study was also carried out only at 2 mM concentration of carboxy-PROXYL. The ESR parameters were estimated using L-band and 300 MHz ESR spectrometers. The line width broadening was measured as a function of agent concentration in liposomal solution. The estimated rotational correlation time is proportional to the agent concentration, which indicates that less mobile nature of nitroxyl spin probe in liposomal solution. The partition parameter and permeability values indicate that the diffusion of nitroxyl spin probe distribution into the lipid phase is maximum at 2 mM concentration of MC-PROXYL. The dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) parameters such as DNP factor, longitudinal relaxivity, saturation parameter, leakage factor and coupling factor were estimated for 2 mM MC-PROXYL in 400 mM liposomal dispersion. The spin lattice relaxation time was shortened in liposomal solution, which leads to the high relaxivity. Reduction in coupling factor is due to less interaction between the electron and nuclear spins, which causes the reduction in enhancement. The leakage factor increases with increasing agent concentration. The increase in DNP enhancement was significant up to 2 mM in liposomal solution. These results paves the way for choosing optimum agent concentration and OMRI scan parameters used in intra and extra membrane water by loading the liposome vesicles with a lipid permeable nitroxyl spin probes in OMRI experiments.

ESR line width and line shape dependence of Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging

Electron spin resonance and Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging studies were carried out for various concentrations of ¹⁴ N-labeled 3-carbamoyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-pyrrolidine-1-oxyl in pure water. Overhauser-enhancement factor attains maxima in the range of 2.5-3 mm concentration. The leakage factor showed an asymptotic increase with increasing agent concentration. The coupling parameter showed the interaction between the electron and nuclear spins to be mainly dipolar in origin. The electron spin resonance parameters, such as the line width, line shape and g-factor, were determined. The line width analysis confirms that the line broadening is proportional to the agent concentration, and also the agent concentration is optimized in the range of 2.5-3 mm. The line shape analysis shows that the observed electron spin resonance line shape is a Voigt line shape, in which the Lorentzian component is dominant. The contribution of Lorentzian component was estimated using the winsim package. The Lorentzian component of the resonance line attains maxima in the range of 2.5-3 mm concentration. Therefore, this study reveals that the agent concentration, line width and Lorentzian component are the important factors in determining the Overhauser-enhancement factor. Hence, the agent concentration was optimized as 2.5-3 mm for in vivo/in vitro electron spin resonance imaging and Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging phantom studies. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Overhauser Geomagnetic Sensor Based on the Dynamic Nuclear Polarization Effect for Magnetic Prospecting

Based on the dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) effect, an alternative design of an Overhauser geomagnetic sensor is presented that enhances the proton polarization and increases the amplitude of the free induction decay (FID) signal. The short-pulse method is adopted to rotate the enhanced proton magnetization into the plane of precession to create an FID signal. To reduce the negative effect of the powerful electromagnetic interference, the design of the anti-interference of the pick-up coil is studied. Furthermore, the radio frequency polarization method based on the capacitive-loaded coaxial cavity is proposed to improve the quality factor of the resonant circuit. In addition, a special test instrument is designed that enables the simultaneous testing of the classical proton precession and the Overhauser sensor. Overall, comparison experiments with and without the free radical of the Overhauser sensors show that the DNP effect does effectively improve the amplitude and quality of the FID signal, and the magnetic sensitivity, resolution and range reach to 10 pT/Hz 1 / 2 @1 Hz, 0.0023 nT and 20-100 μ T, respectively.

Dynamic nuclear polarization-magnetic resonance imaging at low ESR irradiation frequency for ascorbyl free radicals

Highly water-soluble ubiquinone-0 (CoQ₀) reacts with ascorbate monoanion (Asc) to mediate the production of ascorbyl free radicals (AFR). Using aqueous reaction mixture of CoQ₀ and Asc, we obtained positively enhanced dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP)-magnetic resonance (MR) images of the AFR at low frequency (ranging from 515 to 530 MHz) of electron spin resonance (ESR) irradiation. The shape of the determined DNP spectrum was similar to ESR absorption spectra with doublet spectral peaks. The relative locational relationship of spectral peaks in the DNP spectra between the AFR (520 and 525 MHz), ¹⁴N-labeled carbamoyl-PROXYL (¹⁴N-CmP) (526.5 MHz), and Oxo63 (522 MHz) was different from that in the X-band ESR spectra, but were similar to that in the 300-MHz ESR spectra. The ratio of DNP enhancement to radical concentration for the AFR was higher than those for ¹⁴N-CmP, Oxo63, and flavin semiquinone radicals. The spectroscopic DNP properties observed for the AFR were essentially the same as those for AFR mediated by pyrroloquinoline quinone. Moreover, we made a success of in vivo DNP-MR imaging of the CoQ₀-mediated AFR which was administered by the subcutaneous and oral injections as an imaging probe.

Dynamic nuclear polarization properties of nitroxyl radical in high viscous liquid using Overhauser-enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging (OMRI)

The dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) studies were carried out for (15)N labeled carbamoyl-PROXYL in pure water and pure water/glycerol mixtures of different viscosities (1.8cP, 7cP and 14cP). The dependence of DNP parameters was demonstrated over a range of agent concentration, viscosities, RF power levels and ESR irradiation time. DNP spectra were also recorded for 2mM concentration of (15)N labeled carbamoyl-PROXYL in pure water and pure water/glycerol mixtures of different viscosities. The DNP factors were measured as a function of ESR irradiation time, which increases linearly up to 2mM agent concentration in pure water and pure water/glycerol mixtures of different viscosities. The DNP factor started declining in the higher concentration region (∼3mM), which is due to the ESR line width broadening. The water proton spin-lattice relaxation time was measured at very low Zeeman field (14.529mT). The increased DNP factor (35%) was observed for solvent 2 (η=1.8cP) compared with solvent 1 (η=1cP). The increase in the DNP factor was brought about by the shortening of water proton spin-lattice relaxation time of solvent 2. The decreased DNP factors (30% and 53%) were observed for solvent 3 (η=7cP) and solvent 4 (η=14cP) compared with solvent 2, which is mainly due to the low value of coupling parameter in high viscous liquid samples. The longitudinal relaxivity, leakage factor and coupling parameter were estimated. The coupling parameter values reveal that the dipolar interaction as the major mechanism. The longitudinal relaxivity increases with the increasing viscosity of pure water/glycerol mixtures. The leakage factor showed an asymptotic increase with the increasing agent concentration. It is envisaged that the results reported here may provide guidelines for the design of new viscosity prone nitroxyl radicals, suited to the biological applications of DNP.

Nitroxyl radicals-modified dendritic poly(l-lysine) as a contrast agent for Overhauser-enhanced MRI

Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (OMRI), which is a double resonance technique, creates images of free radical distribution in animals by enhancing the water proton signal intensity by the overhauser effect. In this study, we constructed a contrast agent by combining PROXYL groups that have nitroxyl radicals with PEG-modified dendritic poly(l-lysine) that accumulates in the tumor by enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Addition of the PROXYL groups at the PEG chains' termini on KG6 was advantageous in OMRI, because the ESR signal of the nitroxyl radical was maintained without decay caused by mobility restriction, even if the PROXYL groups were attached at 25 mol% on one molecule. After intramuscular injection of the molecule modified at 25 mol%, that is, PR25-PEG-KG6, a significant OMRI signal was observed at the injected site. However, no signal was detected in the tumor after intravenous injection of PR25-PEG-KG6 to a tumor-bearing mouse, although PR25-PEG-KG6 itself accumulated in the tumor. The reason was that the nitroxyl radicals were immediately reduced in the blood after the injection, suggesting that use of stable nitroxyl radicals will enable detection of tumors by OMRI after intravenous injection.

Simultaneous and spectroscopic redox molecular imaging of multiple free radical intermediates using dynamic nuclear polarization-magnetic resonance imaging

Redox reactions that generate free radical intermediates are essential to metabolic processes. However, their intermediates can produce reactive oxygen species, which may promote diseases related to oxidative stress. We report here the use of dynamic nuclear polarization-magnetic resonance imaging (DNP-MRI) to conduct redox molecular imaging. Using DNP-MRI, we obtained simultaneous images of free radical intermediates generated from the coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), flavin mononucleotide (FMN), and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) involved in the mitochondrial electron transport chain as well as the radicals derived from vitamins E and K1. Each of these free radicals was imaged in real time in a phantom comprising a mixture of free radicals localized in either lipophilic or aqueous environments. Changing the frequency of electron spin resonance (ESR) irradiation also allowed each of the radical species to be distinguished in the spectroscopic images. This study is the first to report the spectroscopic DNP-MRI imaging of free radical intermediates that are derived from endogenous species involved in metabolic processes.

An Alderman-Grant resonator for S-Band Dynamic Nuclear Polarization

An Alderman-Grant resonator with resonance at 2GHz (S-Band) was simulated, developed and constructed for Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (DNP) experiments at 73mT. The resonator fits into magnet bores with a minimum diameter of 20mm and is compatible with standard 3mm NMR tubes. The compact resonator design achieves good separation of electric and magnetic fields and therefore can be used with comparatively large sample volumes with only small sample heating effects comparable to those obtained with optimized X- and W-Band DNP setups. The saturation efficiency and sample heating effects were investigated for Overhauser DNP experiments of aqueous solutions of TEMPOL radical, showing relative saturation better than 0.9 and sample heating not exceeding a few Kelvin even at high microwave power and long irradiation time. An application is demonstrated, combining the DNP setup with a commercial fast field cycling NMR relaxometer. Using this resonator design at low microwave frequencies can provide DNP polarization for a class of low-field and time-domain NMR experiments and therefore may enable new applications that benefit from increased sensitivity.

Whole-body kinetic image of a redox probe in mice using Overhauser-enhanced MRI

Overhauser-enhanced MRI (OMRI) enables visualization of free radicals in animals based on dynamic nuclear polarization. Real-time data of tissue redox status gathered from kinetic images of redox-sensitive nitroxyl radical probes using OMRI provided both anatomic and physiological information. Phantom experiments demonstrated the linear correlation between the enhancement factor and the concentration of a membrane-impermeable probe, carboxy-PROXYL (3-carboxy-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl- pyrrolidine-1-oxyl). Whole-body OMRI images illustrated the in vivo kinetics of carboxy-PROXYL for 25 min. Initial distribution was observed in lung, heart, liver, and kidney, but not brain, corresponding to its minimal lipophilicity. Based on these images (pixel size, 1.33 × 1.33 mm; slice thickness, 50mm), a time-concentration curve with low coefficient of variance (<0.21) was created to assess pharmacokinetic behaviors. A biexponential curve showed a distribution phase from 1 to 10 min and an elimination phase from 15 to 25 min. The α rate constant was greater than the β rate constant in ROIs, confirming that its pharmacokinetics obeyed a two-compartment model. As a noninvasive technique, combining OMRI imaging with redox probes to monitor tissue redox status may be useful in acquiring valuable information regarding organ function for preclinical and clinical studies of oxidative diseases.

Oxidative stress imaging in live animals with techniques based on electron paramagnetic resonance

Oxidative stress has been the object of considerable biological and biochemical investigation. Quantification has been difficult although the quantitative level of products of biological oxidations in tissues and tissue products has emerged as a widely used technique. The relationship between these products and the amount of oxidative stress is less clear. Imaging oxidative stress with electron paramagnetic resonance related magnetic resonance imaging, while not addressing the specific issue of quantification of initiating events, focuses on the anatomic specific location of the oxidative stress. Moreover, the relative quantification of oxidative stress of one location against another is possible, sharpening our understanding of oxidative stress. This promises to improve our understanding of oxidative stress and its deleterious consequences and enhance our understanding of the effectiveness of interventions to modulate oxidative stress and its consequences.

Nitroxides prevent exacerbation of indomethacin-induced gastric damage in adjuvant arthritis rats

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are the drugs of choice in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) because of their rapid analgesic effect. However, they induce severe gastric damage in RA patients and animals by a process mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Nitroxides (nitroxyl radicals) are widely used as imaging agents and antioxidants to explore the role of ROS generation in the pathogenesis of disease. In this study, the effectiveness of the newly synthesized nitroxides 8-aza-7,7,9,9-tetramethyl-1,4-dioxaspiro[4.5]undecan-8-oxyl (compound 1) and 4-oxo-2,2,6,6-tetraethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (compound 2) in the prevention of gastric ulcers in adjuvant arthritis rats treated with indomethacin was evaluated by monitoring the reaction of reactive oxygen species in gastric tissue with Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (OMRI). Pretreatment with all tested nitroxides suppressed the ulcers induced by indomethacin treatment in arthritic rats. OMRI using compounds 1 and 2 as well as 4-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPOL) demonstrated a redox imbalance in the stomach of these rats. Lipid peroxide and interleukin (IL)-1β levels in the gastric mucosa were significantly suppressed by compound 1 and TEMPOL, whereas CINC/gro, a member of the IL-8 family, was significantly suppressed by compound 1 only. These results suggest that the preventive effects of nitroxides on gastric ulcers may operate by different mechanisms.

The evaluation of new and isotopically labeled isoindoline nitroxides and an azaphenalene nitroxide for EPR oximetry

Isoindoline nitroxides are potentially useful probes for viable biological systems, exhibiting low cytotoxicity, moderate rates of biological reduction and favorable Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) characteristics. We have evaluated the anionic (5-carboxy-1,1,3,3-tetramethylisoindolin-2-yloxyl; CTMIO), cationic (5-(N,N,N-trimethylammonio)-1,1,3,3-tetramethylisoindolin-2-yloxyl iodide, QATMIO) and neutral (1,1,3,3-tetramethylisoindolin-2-yloxyl; TMIO) nitroxides and their isotopically labeled analogs ((2)H(12)- and/or (2)H(12)-(15)N-labeled) as potential EPR oximetry probes. An active ester analogue of CTMIO, designed to localize intracellularly, and the azaphenalene nitroxide 1,1,3,3-tetramethyl-2,3-dihydro-2-azaphenalen-2-yloxyl (TMAO) were also studied. While the EPR spectra of the unlabeled nitroxides exhibit high sensitivity to O(2) concentration, deuteration resulted in a loss of superhyperfine features and a subsequent reduction in O(2) sensitivity. Labeling the nitroxides with (15)N increased the signal intensity and this may be useful in decreasing the detection limits for in vivo measurements. The active ester nitroxide showed approximately 6% intracellular localization and low cytotoxicity. The EPR spectra of TMAO nitroxide indicated an increased rigidity in the nitroxide ring, due to dibenzo-annulation.

Heisenberg spin exchange effects of nitroxide radicals on Overhauser dynamic nuclear polarization in the low field limit at 1.5mT

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at very low magnetic fields (0.05-20mT) have gained interest due to the simple and portable magnet design and newly emerging applications outside of the usual laboratory setting. A method to enhance the NMR signal is needed due to the low thermal polarization of nuclear spins at these fields; dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) via the Overhauser effect from free radicals is an attractive option. In this report we describe a DNP-enhanced NMR system operating at a fixed field of 1.5mT and measure (1)H signal enhancements of up to -350 fold during the saturation of a selected electron spin resonance (ESR) transition of dissolved nitroxide radicals. This -350 fold enhanced polarization is equivalent to what would be obtained by prepolarization in a 0.53T field. The ESR spectra at varying radical concentrations are indirectly found through DNP-enhanced NMR detection. Here, ESR line broadening at higher radical concentrations due to Heisenberg electron spin exchange is observed. Enhancements in the limit of maximum power are reported as a function of concentration for three ESR transitions, and are found to increase with concentration. The >300 fold (1)H NMR signal amplifications achievable at 1.5mT will reduce experimental time by several orders of magnitude, permitting NMR relaxation, imaging or pulsed-field gradient diffusion experiments that are inaccessible without using the DNP effect at 1.5mT. We demonstrate the potential benefit of such large signal amplification schemes through T(1) and T(2) relaxation measurements carried out in a much shorter time when employing DNP. Finally, we compare our results to those obtained in the earth's magnetic field and find that the signal to noise ratio (SNR) of DNP-enhanced signal at 1.5mT is much greater than that obtained by previous studies utilizing DNP enhancement in the 0.05mT earth's magnetic field.

Dynamic nuclear polarization studies of redox-sensitive nitroxyl spin probes in liposomal solution

Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (OMRI) studies of a membrane-permeable nitroxyl spin probe, (2)H-enriched 3-methoxycarbonyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-pyrrolidine-1-oxyl (MC-PROXYL), used in simultaneous molecular imaging is reported. Phantom imaging was performed with liposomal solutions of MC-PROXYL at varying spin probe and liposome concentrations using a field-cycle mode, custom-built OMRI scanner. Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) spectra of the liposomal solution of the spin probe, measured at 14.529mT using a 5mT sweep of the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) irradiation field showed splitting of the low and high filed hyperfine lines. Spectral measurements using D(2)O and a spin broadening agent, K(3)Fe(CN)(6) confirmed that these peaks originated from water molecules in two different environments, compartmentalized with liposomes. The nuclear Overhauser enhancement measured at different EPR irradiation times and power levels showed reduction in water nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) signal enhancement in liposomal membrane due to the reduction in the coupling constant, rho. This study illustrates that OMRI can be used to differentiate between the intra- and extra- membrane water by loading the liposome vesicles with a lipid-permeable nitroxyl spin probe.

A new model for Overhauser enhanced nuclear magnetic resonance using nitroxide radicals

Nitroxide free radicals are the most commonly used source for dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) enhanced nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments and are also exclusively employed as spin labels for electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy of diamagnetic molecules and materials. Nitroxide free radicals have been shown to have strong dipolar coupling to (1)H in water, and thus result in large DNP enhancement of (1)H NMR signal via the well known Overhauser effect. The fundamental parameter in a DNP experiment is the coupling factor, since it ultimately determines the maximum NMR signal enhancements which can be achieved. Despite their widespread use, measurements of the coupling factor of nitroxide free radicals have been inconsistent, and current models have failed to successfully explain our experimental data. We found that the inconsistency in determining the coupling factor arises from not taking into account the characteristics of the ESR transitions, which are split into three (or two) lines due to the hyperfine coupling of the electron to the (14)N nuclei (or (15)N) of the nitric oxide radical. Both intermolecular Heisenberg spin exchange interactions as well as intramolecular nitrogen nuclear spin relaxation mix the three (or two) ESR transitions. However, neither effect has been taken into account in any experimental studies on utilizing or quantifying the Overhauser driven DNP effects. The expected effect of Heisenberg spin exchange on Overhauser enhancements has already been theoretically predicted and observed by Bates and Drozdoski [J. Chem. Phys. 67, 4038 (1977)]. Here, we present a new model for quantifying Overhauser enhancements through nitroxide free radicals that includes both effects on mixing the ESR hyperfine states. This model predicts the maximum saturation factor to be considerably higher by the effect of nitrogen nuclear spin relaxation. Because intramolecular nitrogen spin relaxation is independent of the nitroxide concentration, this effect is still significant at low radical concentrations where electron spin exchange is negligible. This implies that the only correct way to determine the coupling factor of nitroxide free radicals is to measure the maximum enhancement at different concentrations and extrapolate the results to infinite concentration. We verify our model with a series of DNP experimental studies on (1)H NMR signal enhancement of water by means of (14)N as well as (15)N isotope enriched nitroxide radicals.