Atrazine-induced environmental nephrosis was mitigated by lycopene via modulating nuclear xenobiotic receptors-mediated response

Lycopene Protects against Atrazine-Induced Kidney STING-Dependent PANoptosis through Stabilizing mtDNA via Interaction with Sam50/PHB1

Atrazine (ATR) is a widely used herbicide worldwide that can cause kidney damage in humans and animals by accumulation in water and soil. Lycopene (LYC), a carotenoid with numerous biological activities, plays an important role in kidney protection due to its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. The current study sought to investigate the role of interactions between mtDNA and the cGAS-STING signaling pathway in LYC mitigating PANoptosis and inflammation in kidneys induced by ATR exposure. In our research, 350 mice were orally administered LYC (5 mg/kg BW/day) and ATR (50 or 200 mg/kg BW/day) for 21 days. Our results reveal that ATR exposure induces a decrease in mtDNA stability, resulting in the release of mtDNA into the cytoplasm through the mPTP pore and the BAX pore and the mobilization of the cGAS-STING pathway, thereby inducing renal PANoptosis and inflammation. LYC can inhibit the above changes caused by ATR. In conclusion, LYC inhibited ATR exposure-induced histopathological changes, renal PANoptosis, and inflammation by inhibiting the cGAS-STING pathway. Our results demonstrate the positive role of LYC in ATR-induced renal injury and provide a new therapeutic target for treating renal diseases in the clinic.

Melatonin inhibits atrazine-induced mitochondrial impairment in cerebellum of mice: Modulation of cGAS-STING-NLRP3 axis-dependent cell pyroptosis

The global prevalence of Neurological disorders has increased alarmingly in response to environmental and lifestyle changes. Atrazine (ATZ) is a difficult to degrade soil and water pollutant with well-known neurotoxicity. Melatonin (MT), an antioxidant with chemoprotective properties, has a potential therapeutic effect on cerebellar damage caused by ATZ exposure. The aim of this study was to explore the effects and underlying mechanisms of MT on the cerebellar inflammatory response and pyroptosis induced by ATZ exposure. In this study, C57BL/6J mice were treated with ATZ (170 mg/kg BW/day) and MT (5 mg/kg BW/day) for 28 days. Our results revealed that MT alleviated the histopathological changes, ultrastructural damage, oxidative stress and decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) in the cerebellum induced by ATZ exposure. ATZ exposure damaged the mitochondria leading to release of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to the cytoplasm, MT activated the cyclic GMP-AMP synthetase interferon gene stimulator (cGAS-STING) axis to alleviate inflammation and pyroptosis caused by ATZ exposure. In general, our study provided new evidence that the cGAS-STING-NLRP3 axis plays an important role in the treatment of ATZ-induced cerebellar injury by MT.

A preliminary study on the pathology and molecular mechanism of fumonisin B1 nephrotoxicity in young quails

Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a widely present mycotoxin that accumulates in biological systems and poses a health risk to animals. However, few studies have reported the molecular mechanism by which FB1 induces nephrotoxicity. The aim of this study was to assess the extent of nephrotoxicity during FB1 exposure and the possible molecular mechanisms behind it. Therefore, 180 young quails were equally divided into two groups. The control group was fed typical quail food, while the experimental group was fed quail food containing 30 mg·kg-1 FB1. Various parameters were assessed, which included histopathological, ultrastructural changes, levels of biochemical parameters, oxidative indicators, inflammatory factors, possible target organelles mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-related factors, nuclear xenobiotic receptors (NXR) response, and cytochrome P450 system (CYP450s)-related factors in the kidneys on days 14, 28, and 42. The results showed that FB1 can induce oxidative stress through NXR response and disorder of the CYP450s system, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress, promoting the expression of inflammatory factors (including IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8) and causing kidney damage. This study elucidated the possible molecular mechanism by which FB1 induces nephrotoxicity in young quails.

Atrazine Toxicity: The Possible Role of Natural Products for Effective Treatment

There are various herbicides which were used in the agriculture industry. Atrazine (ATZ) is a chlorinated triazine herbicide that consists of a ring structure, known as the triazine ring, along with a chlorine atom and five nitrogen atoms. ATZ is a water-soluble herbicide, which makes it capable of easily infiltrating into majority of the aquatic ecosystems. There are reports of toxic effects of ATZ on different systems of the body but, unfortunately, majority of these scientific reports were documented in animals. The herbicide was reported to enter the body through various routes. The toxicity of the herbicide can cause deleterious effects on the respiratory, reproductive, endocrine, central nervous system, gastrointestinal, and urinary systems of the human body. Alarmingly, few studies in industrial workers showed ATZ exposure leading to cancer. We embarked on the present review to discuss the mechanism of action of ATZ toxicity for which there is no specific antidote or drug. Evidence-based published literature on the effective use of natural products such as lycopene, curcumin, Panax ginseng, Spirulina platensis, Fucoidans, vitamin C, soyabeans, quercetin, L-carnitine, Telfairia occidentalis, vitamin E, Garcinia kola, melatonin, selenium, Isatis indigotica, polyphenols, Acacia nilotica, and Zingiber officinale were discussed in detail. In the absence of any particular allopathic drug, the present review may open the doors for future drug design involving the natural products and their active compounds.

Astragaloside IV attenuates indoxyl sulfate-induced injury of renal tubular epithelial cells by inhibiting the aryl hydrocarbon receptor pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Astragalus membranaceus Fisch. ex Bunge has long been used to treat chronic kidney disease (CKD) in China. However, the mechanism of action requires further study. Indoxyl sulfate accumulation is the key cause of CKD progression. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) plays an essential role in the renal tubular injury induced by indoxyl sulfate (IS).

AIM

We explored the effects of Astragaloside IV (AS-IV), a minor component of the flowering perennial Astragalus membranaceus Fisch. ex Bunge, on AhR activity during IS-induced injury of renal tubular epithelial cells.

METHODS

C57BL/6 mice fed a 0.2% adenine diet (adenine + IS) and intraperitoneally injected with IS were used to study the protective effects of AS-IV, and specifically the effect on the AhR. In addition, apoptosis (annexin/PI), oxidative stress and the AhR pathway were investigated in IS-stimulated HK-2 cells treated with AS-IV. The binding of AS-IV to the AhR was assessed in a molecular docking analysis. AhR knockdown using AhR siRNA allowed determination of the effects of AS-IV in IS-stimulated HK-2 cells.

RESULTS

AS-IV inhibited tubulointerstitial injury in adenine + IS mice. While AS-IV did not reduce serum IS levels, it did inhibit AhR expression in the kidney. In IS-stimulated HK-2 cells, AS-IV also dramatically reduced apoptosis, decreased oxidative stress responses and inhibited the expression of the AhR pathway. The molecular docking analysis showed surface binding of AS-IV to the AhR. Following AhR knockdown in HK-2 cells, IS-induced apoptosis was reduced and could not be further reduced by AS-IV.

CONCLUSION

By targeting the AhR, AS-IV may alleviate IS-induced renal tubular injury, thus offering a novel therapeutic approach to the treatment of chronic renal failure.

Lycopene ameliorates atrazine-induced spatial learning and memory impairments by inhibiting ferroptosis in the hippocampus of mice

Atrazine (ATR) is a commercially available herbicide that is used worldwide. The intensive use of ATR poses potential risks to animals' and humans' health. Lycopene (LYC) is an anti-oxidative phytochemical that normalizes health hazards triggered by environmental factors. In this study, we aimed to investigate the toxic effects of ATR on the hippocampus and its amelioration by LYC. Male mice were exposed to ATR (50 mg/kg/day or 200 mg/kg/d) and/or LYC (5 mg/kg/d) for 21 days. The results showed that ATR exposure induced hippocampus-dependent learning and memory impairments. ATR-induced ferroptosis in hippocampal cells affects the homeostasis of lipid metabolism, whereas LYC ameliorates the neurotoxic effects of ATR in the hippocampus. LYC inhibited ATR-induced ferroptosis by increasing the expression of HO-1, Nrf2 and SLC7A11. Therefore, this study established that LYC ameliorates ATR-induced spatial learning and memory impairments by inhibiting ferroptosis in the hippocampus and also provides a novel approach for the treatment in contradiction of environmental pollutants.

Protective efficacy of dietary natural antioxidants on microplastic particles-induced histopathological lesions in African catfish (Clarias gariepinus)

Microplastic particles (MPs) are a common environmental pollutant easily ingested by fish in aquaculture. The current study evaluated the protective efficacies of some antioxidant, e.g., lycopene, citric acid, and chlorella, against the toxic effects of MP ingestion by Clarias gariepinus using histopathological biomarkers. Five experimental groups were established, a control group receiving only a standard diet, a group exposed to 500 mg/kg MP concomitant with the standard diet, and three antioxidant groups exposed to MPs plus either lycopene (500 mg/kg), citric acid (30 g/kg), or chlorella (50 g/kg) in the standard diet. After 15 days, fish were sacrificed for histological and histochemical examinations. Histological analysis of the kidney for group 2 (fed 500 mg/kg MPs alone) revealed distributed tissue dissociation, regional glomerular hypertrophy or shrinkage, melanomacrophage accumulation, and expansion of Bowman's space, while liver tissue exhibited dilation and rupture of the central vein wall, hemorrhage, cytoplasmic vacuolation, and cellular necrosis or apoptosis. Fish exposed to MPs also exhibited connective tissue fiber accumulation around renal blood vessels, renal tubules, the central hepatic vein, hepatic blood sinusoids, and serosal, muscle, and submucosal layers of the intestine. In addition, MP exposure reduced carbohydrate (mainly glycogen) contents in the brush borders and basement membranes of renal tubules, glomeruli, and intestinal tissues as well as in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes. These signs of renal, hepatic, and intestinal histopathology were fully or partially reversed by dietary lycopene, chlorella, or citric acid. Enhancing dietary antioxidants is an effective strategy for preventing MP toxicity in Clarias gariepinus in aquaculture.

Effect of Pesticides on Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors (PPARs) and Their Association with Obesity and Diabetes

Obesity and diabetes mellitus are considered the most important diseases of the XXI century. Recently, many epidemiological studies have linked exposure to pesticides to the development of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. The role of pesticides and their possible influence on the development of these diseases was investigated by examining the relationship between these compounds and one of the major nuclear receptor families controlling lipid and carbohydrate metabolism: the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), PPARα, PPARβ/δ, and PPARγ; this was possible through in silico, in vitro, and in vivo assays. The present review aims to show the effect of pesticides on PPARs and their contribution to the changes in energy metabolism that enable the development of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Xenobiotic-sensing nuclear receptors as targets for phthalates-induced lung injury and antagonism of lycopene

Phthalates are extensively used in the production of plastics products and have been verified to induce lung injury. Lycopene (LYC) has proved an effective preventive and can be utilized to prevent phthalates-induced toxicity. However, the role of phthalate in pathogenesis of lung injury remain poorly researched, and little work has been devoted whether LYC could alleviate phthalate-induced lung toxicity via modulating nuclear xenobiotic receptors (NXRs) response. Here, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is used as the representative of phthalates for further studies on toxicity of phthalates and the antagonistic role of LYC in phthalates-induced lung injury. We found that DEHP exposure caused alveoli destruction and alveolar epithelial cells type II damage. Mechanistically, DEHP exposure increased nuclear accumulation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and its downstream genes level, including cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenase (CYP) 1A1 and CYP1B1. Constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) and their downstream gene level, including CYP2E1 are also increased after phthalates exposure. Significantly, LYC supplementation relieves lung injury from DEHP exposure by inhibiting the activation of NXRs. We confirm that NXRs plays a key role in phthalates-induced lung injury. Our study showed that LYC may have a positive role in alleviating the toxicity effects of phthalates, which provides an effective strategy for revising phthalates-induced injury.

Multi-omics profiling and biochemical assays reveal the acute toxicity of environmental related concentrations of Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on the gill of crucian carp (Carassius auratus)

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is one of the most extensively utilized plasticizers in the plastic manufacturing process. It is widely used in various fields due to its low cost and excellent effect. Although there is evidence that DEHP is harmful to animal and human health, DEHP-induced gill toxicity in aquatic organisms is inconclusive, and its mechanism has not been fully elucidated. Here, we investigated the effects of DEHP acute exposure on crucian carp gills at environmentally relevant concentrations of 20, 100, and 500 μg/L. Multi-omics profiling and biochemical assays were employed to characterize the potential toxicological mechanisms. The results showed that acute exposure to 100 and 500 μg/L of DEHP leads to oxidative stress in gills, as evidenced by overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), increased antioxidant enzyme activity, and the transformation of glutathione from reduced to oxidized form, resulting in lipid peroxidation. Integrative analysis of transcriptomics and metabolomics indicated that increased purine metabolism was the potential source of increased ROS. Moreover, lipid metabolism disorder, including arachidonic acid metabolism, induces inflammation. Further, DEHP causes the imbalance of the CYP enzyme system in the gill, and DEHP-induced gill toxicity in crucian carp was associated with interference with CYP450 homeostasis. Taken together, this study broadens the molecular understanding of the DEHP-induced gill toxicity in aquatic organisms and provides novel perspectives for assessing the effects of DEHP on target and non-target aquatic organisms in the environment.

Lycopene Ameliorate Atrazine-Induced Oxidative Damage in the B Cell Zone via Targeting the miR-27a-3p/Foxo1 Axis

Lycopene, a natural bioactive component, has potential to reduce the risk of environmental factors inducing chronic diseases. It is important to explore lycopene's health benefits and its mechanism. The uncontrolled use of atrazine in agriculture causes critical environmental pollution issues worldwide. Exposure to atrazine through water and food chains is a risk to humans. In this study, mice were orally treated with lycopene and/or different concentrations of atrazine for 21 days to explore the influence of atrazine on the spleen and the role of lycopene's protection in atrazine exposure. The work found that atrazine exerted its toxic role in the B cell zone of the spleen by inducing Foxo1 deficiency. Atrazine caused ROS generation and Pink1/Parkin dysfunction via inducing Foxo1 deficiency, which led to apoptosis in the B cell zone. Additionally, the work revealed that lycopene ameliorates atrazine-induced apoptosis in the B cell zone of the spleen via regulating the miR-27a-3p/Foxo1 pathway. The finding also underscored a novel target of lycopene in maintaining homeostasis during B cell maturation.

Chronic Exposure to Vinclozolin Induced Fibrosis, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, Oxidative Stress, and Apoptosis in Mice Kidney

Vinclozolin is one of the most used fungicides in the control of fungi in fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants. The effects of its exposure on different organs have been described, but information regarding its relevance to vinclozolin-induced nephrotoxicity is largely missing. This study focuses on the potential mechanism of vinclozolin-induced nephrotoxicity. CD1 male mice were administered vinclozolin (100 mg/kg) by oral gavage for 28 days. Vinclozolin administration decreased body weight over the treatment period and at the end of the experiment, increased the ratio of kidney weight to body weight and increased serum urea nitrogen and creatinine contents. Vinclozolin also induced histopathological alterations, including tubular dilatation and necrosis and impaired the integrity of the renal-tubular architecture and kidney fibrosis. The analyses conducted showed that vinclozolin administration altered the mRNA levels of mitochondrial function-related proteins (SIRT3, SIRT1, PGC-1α, TFAM, NRF1, VDAC-1, and Cyt c) and oxidative stress (increased lipid peroxidation and decreased total antioxidative capacity, catalase, and superoxide dismutase activities, glutathione levels, and glutathione peroxidase activity) in the kidneys. Furthermore, vinclozolin induced toxicity that altered Nrf2 signalling and the related proteins (HO-1 and NQO-1). Vinclozolin administration also affected both the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways, upregulating the expression of proapoptotic factors (Bax, Caspase 3, and FasL) and downregulating antiapoptotic factor (Bcl-2) levels. This study suggests that vinclozolin induced nephrotoxicity by disrupting the transcription of mitochondrial function-related factors, the Nrf2 signalling pathway, and the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways.

Response of the nuclear xenobiotic receptors to alleviate glyphosate-based herbicide-induced nephrotoxicity in weaned piglets

Glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) are widely used worldwide. Glyphosate (GLP) is the main active component of GBHs. The presence of GBH residues in the environment has led to the exposure of animals to GBHs, but the mechanisms of GBH-induced nephrotoxicity are not clear. This study investigated the effects of GBHs on piglet kidneys. Twenty-eight healthy female hybrid weaned piglets (Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire) with an average weight of 12.24 ± 0.61 kg were randomly divided into four treatment groups (n=7 piglets/group) that were supplemented with Roundup® (equivalent to GLP concentrations of 0, 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg) for a 35-day feeding trial. The results showed that the kidneys in the 40-mg/kg GLP group suffered slight damage. Roundup® significantly decreased the activity of catalase (CAT) (P=0.005) and increased the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) (P=0.029). Roundup® increased the level of cystatin-C (Cys-C) in the plasma (linear, P=0.002 and quadratic, P=0.015). The levels of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) in plasma increased linearly (P=0.007) and quadratically (P=0.003) as the dose of GLP increased. The mRNA expression of intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in the 20-mg/kg GLP group was increased significantly (P<0.05). There was a significant increase in the mRNA levels of pregnenolone X receptor (PXR), constitutive androstane receptor (CAR), and uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase 1A3 (UGT1A3) (P<0.05). Our findings found that kidney nuclear xenobiotic receptors (NXRs) may play an important role in defense against GBHs.

The role of pregnane X receptor (PXR) in substance metabolism

As a member of the nuclear receptor (NR) superfamily, pregnane X receptor (PXR; NR1I2) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of xenobiotics and endobiotics in mammals. The tissue distribution of PXR is parallel to its function with high expression in the liver and small intestine and moderate expression in the kidney, stomach, skin, and blood-brain barrier, which are organs and tissues in frequent contact with xenobiotics. PXR was first recognized as an exogenous substance receptor regulating metabolizing enzymes and transporters and functioning in detoxification and drug metabolism in the liver. However, further research revealed that PXR acts as an equally important endogenous substance receptor in the metabolism and homeostasis of endogenous substances. In this review, we summarized the functions of PXR in metabolism of different substances such as glucose, lipid, bile acid, vitamin, minerals, and endocrines, and also included insights of the application of PXR ligands (drugs) in specific diseases.

Lycopene prevents DEHP-induced testicular endoplasmic reticulum stress via regulating nuclear xenobiotic receptors and unfolded protein response in mice

Lycopene (LYC) is a potent antioxidant synthesized by red vegetables or plants. Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) is frequently detected in diverse agricultural environments and considered as a reproductive toxicant. The present research was designed to assess the potential mechanisms of DEHP-induced testicular toxicity and the treatment efficacy of LYC. In this study, after the oral administration of LYC at the dose of 5 mg per kg b.w. per day, mice were given 500 or 1000 mg per kg b.w. per day of DEHP. This research suggested that LYC prevented the DEHP-induced disorder at the levels of activity and content of CYP450 enzymes. LYC attenuated DEHP-caused enhancement in nuclear xenobiotic receptors (NXRs) and the phase I metabolizing enzymes (CYP1, CYP2, CYP3, etc.) levels. Furthermore, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress was induced by DEHP and triggered unfolded protein response (UPR). Interestingly, LYC could effectively ameliorate these "hit". The present study suggested that LYC prevents DEHP-induced ER stress in testis via regulating NXRs and UPRER.

Lycopene Preventing DEHP-Induced Renal Cell Damage Is Targeted by Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor

Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is an environmentally persistent and bioaccumulative plasticizer. Accumulation of DEHP in the body can eventually cause kidney damage. As a type of natural carotenoid, lycopene (LYC) has a potential protective effect on renal cells, but the protective mechanism has not yet been elucidated. The major goal of this study was to see how effective LYC was at treating DEHP-induced nephrotoxicity in mice. ICR mice were treated with DEHP (500 mg/kg BW/day or 1000 mg/kg BW/day) or LYC (5 mg/kg BW/day) for 28 days. Through histopathology and ultrastructure, we found that LYC attenuated DEHP-induced renal tubular cell and glomerular damage. LYC relieved DEHP-induced kidney injury evidenced by lower levels of blood urea nitrogen (Bun), creatinine (Cre), and uric acid (Uric). Meanwhile, the reduced expression of kidney injury molecule-1 (Kim-1) also supported it. Notably, LYC can alleviate the activity or content of cytochrome P450 system (CYP450s) interfered with by DEHP. In addition, LYC treatment reduced nuclear accumulation of DEHP-induced aromatic hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and AhR nuclear transporter (Arnt), and its downstream target genes such as cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenase (CYP) 1A1, 1A2, and 1B1 expression significantly decreased to normal in the LYC treatment group. In summary, LYC can mediate the AhR/Arnt signaling system to prevent kidney toxicity in mice caused by DEHP exposure.

Lycopene prevents DEHP-induced hepatic oxidative stress damage by crosstalk between AHR-Nrf2 pathway

Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a widespread plasticizer that persists in the environment and can significantly contribute to serious health hazards of liver especially oxidative stress injury. Lycopene (LYC) as a carotenoid has recently gained widespread attention because of antioxidant activity. However, the potential mechanism of DEHP-induced hepatotoxicity and antagonism effect of LYC on it are still unclear. To explore the underlying mechanisms of this hypothesis, the mice were given by gavage with LYC (5 mg/kg) and DEHP (500 or 1000 mg/kg). The data suggested that DEHP caused liver enlargement, reduction of antioxidant activity markers, increase of oxidative stress indicators and disorder of cytochrome P450 enzymes system (CYP450s) homeostasis. DEHP-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) activated the NF-E2-relatedfactor2 (Nrf2) and nuclear xenobiotic receptors (NXRs) system including Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), Pregnane X receptor (PXR) and Constitutive androstane receptor (CAR). Interestingly, these disorders and injuries were prevented after LYC treatment. Taken together, DEHP administration resulted in hepatotoxicity including oxidative stress injury and disordered CYP450 system, but these alterations might be ameliorated by LYC via crosstalk between AHR-Nrf2 pathway.

Lycopene attenuates di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced mitophagy in spleen by regulating the sirtuin3-mediated pathway

Lycopene (Lyc) has been discussed as a potential effector in the prevention and therapy of various diseases. Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is regarded as a universal environmental pollutant. To clarify the potential protective effect of Lyc on DEHP-induced splenic injury, 140 male mice were randomized into seven groups: control (distilled water), vehicle control (corn oil per day), Lyc (5 mg per kg BW per day), DEHP (500 or 1000 mg per kg BW per day), and DEHP combined Lyc group, respectively. All experimental animals were treated by oral gavage for 28 days. The results that showed DEHP exposure significantly up-regulated the mRNA and protein expression of the sirtuin family (except SIRT4-5), PGC-1α, OPA1, Drp1, MFN1/2, NRF1, TFAM, Parkin and PINK in DEHP-treated alone groups and the SOD2 and LC3-II protein expression were also in accordance with the above changes. These were accompanied with an increase of the number of inflammatory cells and rate of mitochondrial damage, and autophagosome formation in the spleen. Notably, Lyc supplementation facilitated all these changes to effectively return to the normal level, indicating that Lyc exerts protective effects against DEHP-induced splenic toxicity. Altogether, the protective effects of Lyc may be a strategy to ameliorate DEHP-induced spleen damage.

Lycopene inhibits IL-1β-induced inflammation in mouse chondrocytes and mediates murine osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common chronic degenerative condition in the elderly, in which inflammation plays a key role in disease pathology. Lycopene (Lye), a member of the carotenoid family, has been reported to have anti‐inflammatory effects. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of Lye on the inflammation of chondrocytes and the mouse OA model. Chondrocytes were treated with interleukin (IL)‐1β, and the mouse OA model was induced by the surgical destabilization of the medial meniscus (DMM). The results showed that Lye could inhibit the expression of inflammatory factors and alleviate the degradation of extracellular matrix (ECM). Additionally, Lye could activate the Nrf2/HO‐1 pathway and reverse the activations of NF‐κB and STAT3 signal pathway induced by IL‐1β, suggesting that its anti‐inflammatory effect may be mediated via these pathways. The animal experiments showed that Lye could decrease the Osteoarthritis Research Society International (OARSI) scores of the knee, indicating that it could inhibit the occurrence and development of OA in mouse. Overall, our results indicated that Lye might be used as a novel drug for OA treatment.

The Activation of Procarcinogens by CYP1A1/1B1 and Related Chemo-Preventive Agents: A Review

CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 are extrahepatic P450 family members involved in the metabolism of procarcinogens, such as PAHs, heterocyclic amines and halogen-containing organic compounds. CYP1A1/1B1 also participate in the metabolism of endogenous 17-β-estradiol, producing estradiol hydroquinones, which are the intermediates of carcinogenic semiquinones and quinones. CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 proteins share approximately half amino acid sequence identity but differ in crystal structures. As a result, CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 have different substrate specificity to chemical procarcinogens. This review will introduce the general molecular biology knowledge of CYP1A1/1B1 and the metabolic processes of procarcinogens regulated by these two enzymes. Over the last four decades, a variety of natural products and synthetic compounds which interact with CYP1A1/1B1 have been identified as effective chemo-preventive agents against chemical carcinogenesis. These compounds are mainly classified as indirect or direct CYP1A1/1B1 inhibitors based on their distinct mechanisms. Indirect CYP1A1/1B1 inhibitors generally impede the transcription and translation of CYP1A1/1B1 genes or interfere with the translocation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) from the cytosolic domain to the nucleus. On the other hand, direct inhibitors inhibit the catalytic activities of CYP1A1/1B1. Based on the structural features, the indirect inhibitors can be categorized into the following groups: flavonoids, alkaloids and synthetic aromatics, whereas the direct inhibitors can be categorized into flavonoids, coumarins, stilbenes, sulfur containing isothiocyanates and synthetic aromatics. This review will summarize the in vitro and in vivo activities of these chemo-preventive agents, their working mechanisms, and related SARs. This will provide a better understanding of the molecular mechanism of CYP1 mediated carcinogenesis and will also give great implications for the discovery of novel chemo-preventive agents in the near future.

AQP2 as a target of lycopene protects against atrazine-induced renal ionic homeostasis disturbance

Atrazine (ATR), a ubiquitous environmental contaminant in water and soil, causes environmental nephrosis. To reveal the toxic effect of ATR on the kidney and the potential chemical nephroprotective effect of lycopene (LYC), Kun-Ming mice of specific pathogen-free (SPF) grade were treated with LYC (5 mg kg-1) and/or ATR (50 mg kg-1 or 200 mg kg-1) for 21 days. The degree of renal injury was evaluated by measuring the ion concentration, ATPase activities and the mRNA expressions/levels of associated ATPase subunits. In addition, the expression of renal aquaporins (AQPs) was analyzed. The results showed that the renal tubular epithelial cells of ATR-exposed mice were swollen, the glomeruli were significantly atrophied, and the ion concentrations were obviously changed. The activity of Na+-K+-ATPase and the transcription of its subunits were downregulated. The activity of Ca2+-Mg2+-ATPase and the transcription of its subunits were upregulated. The expression of AQPs, especially the critical AQP2, was affected. Notably, ATR-induced nephrotoxicity was significantly improved by LYC supplementation. Therefore, LYC could protect the kidney against ATR-induced nephrotoxicity via maintaining ionic homeostasis, reversing the changes in ATPase activity and controlling the expression of AQPs on the cell membrane. These results suggested that AQP2 was a target of LYC and protected against ATR-induced renal ionic homeostasis disturbance.

The Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor in Chronic Kidney Disease: Friend or Foe?

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that promotes cell responses to small molecules derived from the diet, microorganisms, metabolism and pollutants. The AhR signal regulates many basic cellular processes, including cell cycle progression, adhesion, migration, apoptosis and cell proliferation. Many studies have shown that AhR is associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and its complications. This article reviews the current knowledge about the role of AhR in CKD, showing that AhR mediates CKD complications, including cardiovascular disease, anemia, bone disorders, cognitive dysfunction and malnutrition, and that it influences drug metabolism in individuals with CKD. AhR enhances the intestinal barrier function to reduce the harmful effects of uremic toxins. Therefore, understanding the complex roles of AhR during CKD is important to be able to target this transcription factor safely and effectively for CKD prevention and treatment.

Metabolism-Disrupting Chemicals and the Constitutive Androstane Receptor CAR

During the last two decades, the constitutive androstane receptor (CAR; NR1I3) has emerged as a master activator of drug- and xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes and transporters that govern the clearance of both exogenous and endogenous small molecules. Recent studies indicate that CAR participates, together with other nuclear receptors (NRs) and transcription factors, in regulation of hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism, hepatocyte communication, proliferation and toxicity, and liver tumor development in rodents. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) constitute a wide range of persistent organic compounds that have been associated with aberrations of hormone-dependent physiological processes. Their adverse health effects include metabolic alterations such as diabetes, obesity, and fatty liver disease in animal models and humans exposed to EDCs. As numerous xenobiotics can activate CAR, its role in EDC-elicited adverse metabolic effects has gained much interest. Here, we review the key features and mechanisms of CAR as a xenobiotic-sensing receptor, species differences and selectivity of CAR ligands, contribution of CAR to regulation hepatic metabolism, and evidence for CAR-dependent EDC action therein.

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor as a Target for Lycopene Preventing DEHP-Induced Spermatogenic Disorders

Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) is widely used as a plasticizer to improve product flexibility and workability. Lycopene (LYC) is a natural compound and has promising preventive potentials, especially antireproductive toxicity, but the specific underlying mechanism is yet to be fully defined. Our study investigated the effect of LYC on DEHP-induced spermatogenesis disorders. Male ICR mice were treated with DEHP (500 or 1000 mg/kg BW/day) and/or LYC (5 mg/kg BW/day) for 28 days. Our results indicated that LYC could relieve the DEHP-induced injury of seminiferous tubules and spermatogenic cells, swelling of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and an increase of mitochondria. LYC prevented increased levels of nuclear damage to DNA and the deformity rate and decreased values of sperm motility, number, and density. Moreover, LYC treatment decreased DEHP-induced nuclear accumulation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and AHR nuclear translocator (ARNT), and the expressions of their downstream target genes such as cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases (CYP) 1A1, 1A2, and 1B1 were markedly reduced to normal in the LYC treatment group. Our study showed that LYC can prevent DEHP-induced spermatogenic disorders via an AHR/ARNT signaling system. This study provided new evidence of AHR as a target for LYC, which can prevent DEHP-induced toxicity.

Phase 0 of the Xenobiotic Response: Nuclear Receptors and Other Transcription Factors as a First Step in Protection from Xenobiotics

This mini-review examines the crucial importance of transcription factors as a first line of defense in the detoxication of xenobiotics. Key transcription factors that recognize xenobiotics or xenobiotic-induced stress such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), include AhR, PXR, CAR, MTF, Nrf2, NF-κB, and AP-1. These transcription factors constitute a significant portion of the pathways induced by toxicants as they regulate phase I-III detoxication enzymes and transporters as well as other protective proteins such as heat shock proteins, chaperones, and anti-oxidants. Because they are often the first line of defense and induce phase I-III metabolism, could these transcription factors be considered the phase 0 of xenobiotic response?

Nuclear receptor AHR-mediated xenobiotic detoxification pathway involves in atrazine-induced nephrotoxicity in quail (Coturnix C. coturnix)

Atrazine (ATR), one of the most widely used pesticides in agricultural production, are gradually concerned due to potential ecosystem and health risks. Further, the induction of ATR nephrotoxicity and detoxification response is still unknown. To evaluate ATR-induced nephrotoxicity, quails were treated with 0, 50, 250 or 500 mg/kg ATR by gavage administration for 45 days. Histopathology indicated that ATR exposure caused renal tubular epithelial cell swelling and endoplasmic reticulum degeneration, suggesting that ATR exposure causes renal impairment even renal diseases. Notably, ATR interfered cytochrome P450 system (CYP450s) homeostasis by enhancing contents or activities of CYP450s (total CYP450, Cyt b5, AH, APND, NCR and ERND) and the expression of CYP450 isoforms (CYP1A, CYP1B, CYP2C and CYP3A). ATR triggered phase II detoxifying reaction, reflected by the elevated GSH level, GST activity and the up-regulation of GST isoforms (GSTa, GSTa3 and GSTt1) and GSH synthetase (GCLC). Moreover, ABC transporters were activated to expel ATR from the body by increasing expression of MRP1 and P-GP gene. Accompanying these alterations, the nuclear receptors (AHR, CAR and PXR) were activated by ATR in a dose-dependent manner. Analysis results of present study demonstrated that the induction of phase II detoxifying enzyme system and ABC transporters could be modulated by nuclear receptors response and CYP450s disturbance in low-dose ATR-treated quail. In conclusion, all data suggested that nuclear receptors AHR-mediated detoxification pathway was involved in ATR-induced nephrotoxicity. These results provided new evidence about the nephrotoxic effects of ATR on the response of biotransformation and detoxification system.

Di (2-ethyl hexyl) phthalate (DEHP)-induced spleen toxicity in quail (Coturnix japonica) via disturbing Nrf2-mediated defense response

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), as a widely used plasticizer, is reported to have widespread environmental and global health hazards. Trace amounts of phthalates in the environment are sufficient to disrupt ecological balance and affect human health. However, DEHP-induced splenic toxicity remains in an unknown state. Therefore, to explore the mechanism of DEHP-induced splenic toxicity, male quail were employed with 0, 250, 500 and 750 mg/kg body weight DEHP by daily gastric perfusion for 45 days. Notably, splenic corpuscular border and cell gap enlargement were observed in the spleen tissue of DEHP-exposed quail under the histopathological analysis. Furthermore, DEHP induced dysregulation of oxidative stress markers by increasing malondialdehyde (MDA) content and decreasing superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase (CAT) activities. Low concentration of DEHP (≤250 mg/kg) exposure suppressed nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway, while high concentration of DEHP (≥500 mg/kg) exposure activated Nrf2-mediated defense response. DEHP induced splenic oxidative stress via interfering Nrf2 signal pathway and altering the transcription of its downstream genes. In conclusion, this study suggested that DEHP induced splenic toxicity.

Lycopene attenuates AFB1-induced renal injury with the activation of the Nrf2 antioxidant signaling pathway in mice

Oxidative stress is an important molecular mechanism for kidney injury in aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) nephrotoxicity. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a master transcription factor for regulating the cellular oxidative stress response, which has been confirmed in animal models. Lycopene (LYC), a natural carotenoid, has received extensive attention due to its antioxidant effect with the activation of Nrf2. However, the role of LYC in protecting against AFB1-induced renal injury is unknown. To evaluate the chemoprotective effect of LYC on AFB1-induced renal injury, forty-eight male mice were randomly divided into 4 groups and treated with LYC (5 mg per kg of bodyweight) and/or AFB1 (0.75 mg per kg of bodyweight) by intragastric administration for 30 days. AFB1 and LYC were respectively dissolved in olive oil. We found that AFB1 exposure significantly increased the serum concentrations of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum creatinine (SCR), and caused damage to the renal structure. Notably, LYC potentially alleviated AFB1-induced kidney lesions through attenuating AFB1-induced oxidative stress. Renal nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its downstream target gene (CAT, NQO1, SOD1, GSS, GCLM and GCLC) translation and protein expression were ameliorated by pretreatment with LYC in AFB1-exposed mice. These results suggested that LYC potentially alleviates AFB1-induced renal injury. This effect may be attributed to the enhancement of renal antioxidant capacity with the activation of the Nrf2 antioxidant signaling pathway.

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate induced hepatotoxicity in quail (Coturnix japonica) via modulating the mitochondrial unfolded protein response and NRF2 mediated antioxidant defense

Among ubiquitously found environmental contaminants in the ecosystem, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is an important environmental contaminant used as plasticizer in medical and consumer goods. The bioaccumulation and environmental persistence of DEHP cause serious global health effects in wildlife animals and human, especially hepatotoxicity. Herein, to explore the mechanisms of DEHP induced hepatotoxicity, quail were exposed with 0, 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg BW/day DEHP by gavage administration daily for 45 days. Notably, the adipose tissue degeneration was observed in the liver of DEHP-exposed quail under the histopathological analysis. DEHP exposure increased the peroxidation product (MDA), GSH and GST, but decreased antioxidant function (T-AOC, SOD and GPX). DEHP induced the oxidative stress and pulsed on NRF2 signal pathway through activating downstream genes. Furthermore, DEHP induced mitochondrial ultrastructural abnormalities and mitochondrial dysfunctions. Mitochondrial unfolded protein response (mtUPR) was activated to relieve mitochondrial dysfunctions and mitigated oxidative stress. These findings showed that mitochondrial functions and redox homeostasis were affected by DEHP and resulted in irreversible hepatic injury. In Conclusion, this study suggested that DEHP-induced hepatotoxicity in quail was associated with activating the NRF2 mediated antioxidant defense and mtUPR. These results provided new evidence on molecular mechanism of DEHP induced hepatotoxicity.

Modulation of heat-shock response is associated with Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)-induced cardiotoxicity in quail (Coturnix japonica)

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is an omnipresent environmental pollutant with endocrine disrupting properties. As a plasticizer, DEHP can be leach from the plastic to transfer the external environment and thus enters the animal food chain, causing serious damage to the animal organs. The heat-shock response (HSR) comprising heat-shock protein (HSPs) and heat-shock transcription factor (HSFs) plays a pivotal role in various toxic stress conditions. For the sake of investigating the effects of DEHP exposure on cardiac toxicity and the regulation of HSR, male quail were fed the diet with 0, 250, 500 and 750 mg/kg DEHP by gavage administration for 45 days. Histopathological changes including cardiomyocyte swelling and muscle fiber dilatation were observed in the hearts exposed to DEHP. During the DEHP treatment, the mRNA expression of HSP60 and HSP70 were universally reduced, while the expression of other HSPs (HSP10, HSP25, HSP27, HSP40, HSP47, HSP90, HSP110) had different degrees of growth. In addition, the levels of HSF1, HSF2, and HSF3 were significantly increased. Given the facts above, DEHP exposure induced the toxic effects of quail heart. DEHP exposure did great harm to HSR via affecting the synthesis of HSFs to mediate the transcription of the HSPs. Ultimately, this study provided new evidence that DEHP-induced cardiotoxicity in quail was related to activation of HSR and playing a protective role.

Atrazine induced oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in quail (Coturnix C. coturnix) kidney via modulating Nrf2 signaling pathway

Atrazine (ATR) is a most used herbicide which is believed as a pivotal determinant of environmental nephrosis, but potential mechanism is still largely unclear. This study intends to reveal a novel mechanism of ATR-induced nephrotoxicity. Quail were treated with 0, 50, 250 and 500 mg ATR/kg/d by oral gavage for 45 days. Kidney coefficient was decreased, biochemical and morphologic indices reflecting the kidney injury were significantly increased in ATR-exposed quail. ATR exposure upregulated the expression of proapoptotic factors (Bax, Caspase 3 and FasL) and downregulated antiapoptotic factor (Bcl-2). Notably, cristae of mitochondria decreased, mitochondrial malformation and mitochondrial vacuolar degeneration were observed in ATR-exposed quail. ATR induced the disorder of mitochondrial function related factors expressions and promoted oxidative damage. Furthermore, ATR induced toxicities in the expression of Nrf2 and Nrf2-target genes. In conclusion, ATR altered the microstructure and function of quail kidney. ATR induced renal damage via causing mitochondrial dysfunction, influencing mitochondrial function related genes expression, modulating Nrf2 signaling pathway. This study suggested ATR induced the nephrotoxicity via disturbing the transcription of mitochondrial function related factors and Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Lycopene Triggers Nrf2-AMPK Cross Talk to Alleviate Atrazine-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Mice

Atrazine (ATR), an environmental persistent and bioaccumulative herbicide, has been associated with environmental nephrosis. Lycopene (LYC) exhibits important properties of nephroprotection, but there are limited data on the specific underlying mechanism. The primary objective of this study was to explore the therapeutic effect of LYC on ATR-induced nephrotoxicity in mice. The mice were divided randomly into 6 groups and treated as follows: control group (C), 5 mg/kg LYC group (L), 50 mg/kg ATR group (A1), 200 mg/kg ATR group (A2), 50 mg/kg ATR plus 5 mg/kg LYC group (A1+L), and 200 mg/kg ATR plus 5 mg/kg LYC group (A2+L) by oral gavage administration for 21 days. We found that pretreatment with LYC significantly suppressed the ATR-induced renal tubular epithelial cell swelling. Furthermore, LYC mitigated ATR-induced dysregulation of oxidative stress markers by reducing MDA, H₂O₂ levels, and increasing SOD, GPx, CAT concentration, and Nrf2 activation. Moreover, LYC activated the autophagic flux by a detectable change in autophagy-related genes (Beclin-1 and ATGs) and proteins (p62/SQSTM) and by the formation of autophagic vacuole (AV) and LC3 aggregation, in parallel with AMPK activation (pAMPK/AMPK). Herein, ATR-up-regulated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) expression and Nrf2-regulated redox genes, including quinoneoxidoreductase-1 (NQO1) and heme oxidase-1 (HO1), whereas LYC down-regulated those of the above genes. In addition, LYC suppressed ATR-induced activation of autophagy (increased LC3II/LC3I, ATGs, Beclin1, and p62, in parallel with increased AMPK activation). Collectively, our findings identified a cross talk between AMPK-activated autophagy and the Nrf2 signaling pathway in LYC-mediated nephroprotection against ATR-induced toxicity in mice kidney.

Crosstalk between unfolded protein response and Nrf2-mediated antioxidant defense in Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced renal injury in quail (Coturnix japonica)

The widely used Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) has been reported to exhibit ubiquitous environmental and global health hazards. The bioaccumulation and environmental persistence of DEHP can cause serious health hazards in wildlife animals and human. However, DEHP-induced nephrotoxicity in bird is remained unknown. Thus, this study explored the related mechanism of DEHP nephrotoxicity in quail. For this purpose, quail were exposed with DEHP at doses of 0, 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg body weight daily by gavage administration for 45 days. The results showed that DEHP exposure induced renal injury, oxidative stress, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) degeneration. Low level DEHP (250 mg/kg) exposure inhibited Nrf2 signaling pathway and induced renal injury via oxidative stress and suppressed the unfolded protein response (UPR) signaling pathway and induced ER stress in the kidney. But surprisingly, high level DEHP (500 mg/kg and 1000 mg/kg) exposure activated Nrf2 and UPR signaling pathways and protected kidney, but they still couldn't resist the toxicity of DEHP. Our study demonstrated that DEHP-induced nephrotoxicity in quail was associated with activating Nrf2-mediated antioxidant defense response and UPR signaling pathway.

Di (2-ethyl hexyl) phthalate (DEHP)-induced kidney injury in quail (Coturnix japonica) via inhibiting HSF1/HSF3-dependent heat shock response

Di (2-ethyl hexyl) phthalate (DEHP) as a plasticizer can leach away from the plastic and hence entrances into the animal food chain which caused serious hazard in organs of animals, but there are few studies on DEHP kidney toxicity. The heat-shock response (HSR) consisting of the HSPs and HSFs plays an important role in various toxicity stress conditions. To investigate the influence on kidney toxicity and the modulation of HSR during DEHP exposure, female quail were fed the diet with 0, 250, 500 and 750 mg/kg DEHP by gavage administration for 45 days. The shrinkages of glomeruli and dilation of kidney tubule epithelia cells were observed in the kidney of DEHP-exposed quail. DEHP treatment could significantly decrease the expressions of HSP25, HSP27, HSP47, HSP60, while the expressions of HSP10, HSP40, HSP70, HSP90, HSP110 were upregulated in the kidney. In addition, the expression levels of HSF1 and HSF3 were significantly increased under DEHP. This is the first study to demonstrate quail exposure to DEHP is in fact detrimental to bird kidney. Besides, DEHP could attack HSR by affecting the synthesis of HSFs to mediate the transcription of the HSPs resulting in kidney damage.