Determination of naproxen in human urine by solid-phase microextraction coupled to liquid chromatography

A novel sorbent based on electrospun for electrically-assisted solid phase microextraction of six non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs, followed by quantitation with HPLC-UV in human plasma samples

BACKGROUND

Although NSAIDs possess notable therapeutic and pharmaceutical qualities, it's essential to acknowledge that excessive doses can result in toxicity within the human body. Moreover, the importance lies in identifying and measuring their trace amounts. Due to their existence within intricate matrices, the creation of novel electrospun nanofibers as sorbents for electrically-assisted solidphase microextraction (EA-SPME) becomes vital. This innovation caters to the requirement for the effective pre-treatment of NSAID samples, providing a strategic approach to managing the complexities associated with trace quantities found in various matrices.

RESULTS

First, polyvinylalcohol/casein/tannic acid/polyaniline/titanium dioxide nanoparticles (PVA/CAS/TA/PANI/TiO2 NPs) electrospun nanofibers were prepared for EA-SPME on pewter rode and then, trace amounts of six NSAIDs (Acetaminophen, Caffeine, Naproxen, Celecoxib, Ibuprofen and mefenamic acid) were adsorbed chemically on these nanofibers. In the next step, the desorption of six NSAIDs was electrochemically done from prepared electrospun nanofibers on a pewter rod which was as working electrode at three electrodes system. Finally, these drugs were quantified from different human plasma samples with HPLC-UV. The synthesis of electrospun nanofibers was confirmed through a series of analytical techniques including field emission-scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy with elemental mapping analysis (EDX-Mapping), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier transform-infrared (FT-IR). The optimal percentage of additive compounds to PVA/CAS for electrospinning, as well as the factors influencing adsorption and desorption processes, were determined through both of Design Expert software and MATLAB programming language.

SIGNIFICANCE

Under optimum conditions, the wide linear range was 27-8000 ng mL-1 with R2≥ 0.9897, low detection limits were ranged from 8 to 27.3 ng mL-1 based on S/N = 3 and significant enrichment factors were acquired. The intra-day and inter-day RSDs% were obtained within the 4.51% - 5.68% and 4.28%-5.45%, respectively. Finally, The effectiveness of the EA-SPME-HPLC-UV method was assessed for determining NSAIDs in plasma samples, demonstrating good recoveries ranging from 90.2% to 105.2%.

Effect of Andrographis paniculata extract and Andrographolide on the pharmacokinetics of Aceclofenac and Celecoxib in rats

Background

In India, for the treatment of cold, fever and inflammation, people consume herbal remedies containing Andrographis paniculata Nees (APE) as main ingredient, along with NSAIDs. So the purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of APE and pure andrographolide (AN) on the pharmacokinetic of with aceclofenac (ACF) and celecoxib (CXB) after oral co-administration in wistar rats. After co-administration of APE (equivalent to 20 mg/kg of AN) and AN (20 mg/kg) with ACF (5 mg/kg) and CXB (5 mg/kg) in rats, orally, drug concentrations in plasma were determined using HPLC method. Non-compartment model was used to calculate pharmacokinetic parameters like Cmax, Tmax, t1/2, MRT, Vd, CL, and AUC.

Results

Co-administration of ACF and CXB with APE and pure AN altered the systemic exposure level of each compound in vivo. The Cmax, Tmax, MRT of CXB were increased whereas Vd and Cl of CXB were decreased significantly after co-administration of CXB with APE. Whereas co-administration of CXB with AN significantly decreased Vd, CL, and MRT of CXB. The concentration of ACF was increased significantly in co-administered groups with pure AN and APE. The AUC0-∞, AUMC0-∞, MRT, Vd and t1/2 of ACF were also significantly decreased in co-administered groups, hence CL of ACF was increased significantly.

Conclusion

This study concludes that APE and pure AN have effect on pharmacokinetic of CXB and ACF in rat. Not only patients but medical practitioners using Andrographis paniculata should have awareness regarding probable herb-drug interactions with ACF and CXB.

Analytical quality by design approach to RP-HPLC method development and validation for simultaneous estimation of esomeprazole and naproxen in modified-release dosage form

Background

The present work describes the development and validation of a new, specific, accurate, and precise stability-indicating RP-HPLC method for the simultaneous estimation of Esomeprazole (ESP) and Naproxen (NAP) in modified-release bi-layer tablet dosage form. Analytical Quality by Design concept was implemented through the method development exercise to establish the robustness of the method.

Results

Method development was performed on C18, 250 × 4.6 mm ID, and 5 µm particle size column with 10 µl injection volume using a photodiode array (PDA) detector to monitor the detection at 280 nm. The mobile phase consisted of the buffer: methanol at a ratio of 50: 50 (v/v), and the flow rate was maintained at 1.5 ml/min, and the column oven temperature was maintained at 30 °C. The retention times for NAP and ESP were found 5.9 ± 0.1 and 8.9 ± 0.1 min, respectively. The method was validated in terms of system suitability, specificity, accuracy, linearity, precision, and solution stability. Linearity was observed over the range of concentration 8–12 µg/ml for ESP and 200–300 µg/ml for NAP, and the correlation coefficient (R2) was found excellent > 0.999. The method was specific to ESP and NAP, and the peak purity was found 99.97% for ESP and 100.00% for NAP. The method was precise and had %RSD less than 2. Recovery study for accuracy with placebo was found in the range of 99.63–100.36% for ESP and 99.91–100.43% for NAP.

Conclusion

This proposed fast, reliable, cost-effective method can be used as a quality control tool for the simultaneous determination of Esomeprazole and Naproxen in routine laboratory analysis.

Graphical Abstract

Facile and highly efficient three-phase single drop microextraction in-line coupled with capillary electrophoresis

A high-performance version of in-line, three-phase direct immersion-single drop microextraction (DI-SDME) coupled with capillary electrophoresis (CE) was demonstrated using a commercial CE instrument, and all the major and minor details were described to provide an easy-to-follow and user-friendly protocol. The excellent sample cleanup and enrichment power of this method was demonstrated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in human urine. The only preparation of urine samples was the addition of HCl to acidify the urine sample to pH 2. The acidic NSAIDs in the acidified urine sample were extracted into a basic acceptor drop covered with a thin organic layer attached to the inlet tip of a capillary immersed in the sample. A simple but powerful DI-SDME-CE method could be carried out automatically without any modification of the existing CE instrument. For improved performance, sample agitation and heating were employed by installing a microstirrer and a thermostating jacket in the sample tray. With 10 min of DI-SDME at 35°C with stirring, NSAIDs such as ketoprofen, ibuprofen, and naproxen in urine were enriched 340-970-fold with intraday and interday RSDs of 0.8-2.4% and 1.1-3.6%, respectively. The LODs obtained with in-line coupled CE/UV were 10-50 nM (2-10 µg/L). The performance of DI-SDME-CE/UV was also demonstrated by determining the naproxen level in human urine collected 24 h after taking a single oral dose of the drug. The spike recovery of naproxen from a single-point standard addition to the urine sample was 80%. Our high-performance three-phase DI-SDME-CE method is quite promising for the analysis of ionizable trace analytes in a complex sample matrix.

Quantitative microsampling for bioanalytical applications related to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic: Usefulness, benefits and pitfalls

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SARS-CoV-2 emergency sparks the need for diagnostic and therapeutic actions.

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Microsampling is emerging in as an attractive alternative to traditional sampling.

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Advantages and challenges of the main microsampling techniques are reported.

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Available microsampling applications of interest for SARS-CoV-2 are described.

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Most useful information for researchers and clinicians are gathered and provided.

The multiple pathological effects of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, and its total novelty, mean that currently a lot of diagnostic and therapeutic tools, established and tentative alike, are needed to treat patients in a timely, effective way. In order to make these tools more reliable, faster and more feasible, biological fluid microsampling techniques could provide many advantages. In this review, the most important microsampling techniques are considered (dried matrix spots, volumetric absorptive microsampling, microfluidics and capillary microsampling, solid phase microextraction) and their respective advantages and disadvantages laid out. Moreover, currently available microsampling applications of interest for SARS-CoV-2 therapy are described, in order to make them as much widely known as possible, hopefully providing useful information to researchers and clinicians alike.

Rapid TLC with Densitometry for Evaluation of Naproxen Stability

The purpose of the work was to develop such chromatographic conditions that allowed to separate as many naproxen degradation products as possible. In order to follow this process, thin-layer chromatography (TLC) coupled with densitometry and spectrodensitometry was used. A forced degradation study was performed using an ethanolic solution of naproxen spotted on silica gel plates, existing in the form of an aqueous solution at various pH values, and as solution prepared in saline and in hydrogen peroxide. Degradative effect of UV light on naproxen was watched in the context of naproxen spotted on plates precoated with silica gel and exposed to UV light, and also for its solution treated with UV light. However, the solution of naproxen prepared in water at pH ≈ 2.60 undergoes the largest changes as the results of its exposure to UV light during 10 h. Stressed samples of naproxen were analyzed by using a new and well validated TLC procedure including toluene (TOL)—acetone (ACE)—chloroform (CHL) (2:5:12, v/v/v) as mobile phase A and glacial acetic acid (AcOH)—n-hexane (Hex)—acetone (ACE)-(0.10:10:10, v/v/v) as mobile phase B. As the newly developed TLC-densitometric method can effectively separate the substances about pharmaceutical significance from products of its degradation, which are formed as a result of stress studies, is considered to be a good alternative and important tool in routine quality control and stability testing of naproxen in pharmaceutical formulations. These results indicate that proposed TLC-densitometric method is cost-effective, rapid, specific, accurate, and precise. This TLC procedure is comparable to HPLC and UPLC method in terms of detection the number of degradation products of naproxen. In addition, it realizes the criterion of linearity. A major advantage and novelty of proposed method is its low cost and ability to analyze examined drug and all degradation products simultaneously, including those which can be observed under intensive UV radiation exposure of naproxen solution which are not described by previous HPTLC studies available in the literature.

Comparison of three electromembrane-based extraction systems for NSAIDs analysis in human urine samples

A comparative study on the extraction efficiency of five non-steroidal anti-inflammatories was carried out using three different electromembrane extraction (EME) devices with different geometries. The employed setups were (a) a hollow fiber configuration (HF-EME), (b) a microfluidic device that allows working in semi-dynamic mode (μF-EME), and (c) a static miniaturized flat membrane device (FM-EME). Each system was applied to the extraction of salicylic acid (SAC), ketoprofen (KTP), naproxen (NAX), diclofenac (DIC), and ibuprofen (IBU) and subsequent determination by high-performance liquid chromatography with UV and fluorescence detection (HPLC/UV-DAD-FLD). Voltage, pH composition, and extraction time were optimized for all devices. Additionally, volume ratio was investigated for HF-EME and FM-EME and flow rate for the microfluidic device. HF-EME provides the best result in terms of sensitivity with a limit of detection (LOD) between 0.1 and 1.5 ng mL^-1 for SAC and KTP, respectively, while LODs for μF-EME were between 100 ng mL^-1 and 400 ng mL^-1 for SAC and DIC, respectively; however, a lower amount of sample was required. Finally, the obtained results, in terms of enrichment factors and extraction recoveries, were discussed to establish the advantages and disadvantages of each device. The proposed EME methods were successfully applied to the determination of the target analytes in fortified human urine samples. Graphical abstract.

Magnetic Solid-Phase Extraction Based on Poly 4-Vinyl Pyridine for HPLC-FLD Analysis of Naproxen in Urine Samples

A magnetic solid phase extraction technique followed by liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector for naproxen analysis in human urine samples was developed. The method includes the extraction of naproxen with a magnetic solid synthetized with magnetite and poly 4-vinylpriridine, followed by the magnetic separation of the solid phase and desorption of the analyte with methanol. Under optimal conditions, the linear range of the calibration curve was 0.05–0.60 μg L⁻¹, with a limit of detection of 0.02 μg L⁻¹. In all cases values of repeatability were lower than 5.0% with recoveries of 99.4 ± 1.3%. Precision and accuracy values are adequate for naproxen (Npx) analysis in urine samples.

Woven cotton yarn-graphene oxide-layered double hydroxide composite as a sorbent for thin film microextraction of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs followed by quantitation through high performance liquid chromatography

The applicability of a highly flexible and natural cotton yarn-graphene oxide-layered double hydroxide composite (CY-GO-LDH) was introduced for the extraction of the targets in the current study. For increasing the contact area of the analytes and the prepared sorbent, the green substrate was woven and employed as the substrate for the construction of GO layers. It was proved that the prepared CY-GO-LDH film is a reliable sorbent for thin film microextraction (TFME) of the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) including acetylsalicylic acid, naproxen, diclofenac, ibuprofen and mefenamic acid in human urine and plasma. Extraction factors were optimized using multivariate optimization strategy. High adherence of GO-LDH to the natural substrate made this technique more robust for routine analysis. There are two consecutive steps to optimize the parameters influencing the extraction of analytes; First, a Plackett-Burman Design (PBD) was utilized to screen the significant factors. Second, the selected factors were optimized utilizing the Box-Behnken Design (BBD). The extracted NSAIDs were analyzed by HPLC-UV. Under the obtained optimum condition, the linearity of the method was 0.2-200  μg L^-1. Limits of detection, limits of quantification and intra-day as well as inter-day RSDs were lower than 0.25  μg L^-1, 0.72  μg L^-1 and 6.1%, respectively. The method was successfully used to determine NSAIDs in different human biological fluids.

Competitive Protein Binding Assay of Naproxen by Human Serum Albumin Functionalized Silicon Dioxide Nanoparticles

We have developed a new competitive protein binding assay (CPBA) based on human serum albumin functionalized silicon dioxide nanoparticles (nano-SiO₂-HSA) that can be used for naproxen determination in urine. Compared with a conventional multi-well reaction plate, nano-SiO₂ with a high surface-area-to-volume ratio could be introduced as a stationary phase, markedly improving the analytical performance. Nano-SiO₂-HSA and horseradish peroxidase-labeled-naproxen (HRP-naproxen) were prepared for the present CPBA method. In this study, a direct competitive binding to nano-SiO₂-HSAwas performed between the free naproxen in the sample and HRP-naproxen. Thus, the catalytic color reactions were investigated on an HRP/3,3'5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB)/H₂O₂ system by the HRP-naproxen/nano-SiO₂-HSA composite for quantitative measurement via an ultraviolet spectrophotometer. A series of validation experiments indicated that our proposed methods can be applied satisfactorily to the determination of naproxen in urine samples. As a proof of principle, the newly developed nano-CPBA method for the quantification of naproxen in urine can be expected to have the advantages of low costs, fast speed, high accuracy, and relatively simple instrument requirements. Our method could be capable of expanding the analytical applications of nanomaterials and of determining other small-molecule compounds from various biological samples.

Flow Injection Analysis with Direct UV Detection Following Electric Field Driven Membrane Extraction

A method for on-line matrix elimination to enable selective quantification of ultraviolet absorbing analytes by a flow-injection analysis procedure is described. Selectivity is achieved by electric field driven extraction across a polymer inclusion membrane. The method was demonstrated on the example of the determination of naproxen from spiked human urine. Membranes of 10 μm thickness were employed which consisted of 7.5 mg cellulose triacetate as base polymer, 5 mg of o-nitrophenyl octyl ether as plasticizer and 7.5 mg of Aliquat 336 as cationic carrier. Ten μL of sample was introduced into a continuous stream of background solution consisting of 100 µM aqueous NaClO₄ with a flow rate of 2 μL/min while applying a voltage of 150 V to the extraction cell. The target ion was electrokinetically transported across the membrane and enriched in 1.5 μL of a stagnant acceptor solution. This was subsequently pumped past a flow-through UV detector for quantification. The method showed a linear range from 5 to 200 µM with a correlation coefficient of 0.9978 and a reproducibility of typically 7% (n = 8). The detection limit of the method for naproxen was 2 µM.

Direct Conjugation of Emerging Contaminants in Arabidopsis: Indication for an Overlooked Risk in Plants?

Agricultural use of treated wastewater, biosolids, and animal wastes introduces a multitude of contaminants of emerging concerns (CECs) into the soil-plant system. The potential for food crops to accumulate CECs depends largely on their metabolism in plants, which at present is poorly understood. Here, we evaluated the metabolism of naproxen and ibuprofen, two of the most-used human drugs from the Profen family, in Arabidopsis thaliana cells and the Arabidopsis plant. The complementary use of high-resolution mass spectrometry and ¹⁴C labeling allowed the characterization of both free and conjugated metabolites, as well as nonextractable residues. Naproxen and ibuprofen, in their parent form, were conjugated quickly and directly with glutamic acid and glutamine, and further with peptides, in A. thaliana cells. For example, after 120 h, the metabolites of naproxen accounted for >90% of the extractable chemical mass, while the intact parent itself was negligible. The structures of glutamate and glutamine conjugates were confirmed using synthesized standards and further verified in whole plants. Amino acid conjugates may easily deconjugate, releasing the parent molecule. This finding highlights the possibility that the bioactivity of such CECs may be effectively preserved through direct conjugation, a previously overlooked risk. Many other CECs are also carboxylic acids, such as the profens. Therefore, direct conjugation may be a common route for plant metabolism of these CECs, making it imperative to consider conjugates when assessing their risks.

Herb-drug interaction of Andrographis paniculata (Nees) extract and andrographolide on pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic of naproxen in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Andrographis paniculata Nees (Acanthacae) have broad range of pharmacological effects such as hepatoprotective, antifertility, antimalarial, antidiabetic, suppression of various cancer cells and anti-inflammatory properties and is widely used medicinal plant in the traditional Unani and Ayurvedic medicinal systems. Andrographolide (AN) is one of the active constituent of the A. paniculata Nees extract (APE). They have been found in many traditional herbal formulations in India and proven to be effective as anti-inflammatory drug.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic (anti arthritic) herb-drug interactions of A. paniculata Nees extract (APE) and pure andrographolide (AN) with naproxen (NP) after oral co-administration in wistar rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

After oral co-administration of APE (200mg/Kg) and AN (60mg/kg) with NP (7.5mg/kg) in rats, drug concentrations in plasma were determined using HPLC method. The main pharmacokinetic parameters of C_max, t_max, t_1/2, MRT, Vd, CL, and AUC were calculated by non-compartment model. Change in paw volume, mechanical nociceptive threshold, mechanical hyperalgesia, histopathology and hematological parameters were evaluated to study antiarthritic activity.

RESULTS

Co-administration of NP with APE and pure AN decreased systemic exposure level of NP in vivo. The C_max, t_max, AUC_0-t of NP was decreased. In pharmacodynamic study, NP (10mg/kg) alone and NP+AN (10+60mg/kg) groups exhibited significant synergistic anti-arthritic activity as compared to groups NP+APE, APE and AN alone.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained from this study suggested that NP, APE and pure AN existed pharmacokinetic herb-drug interactions in rat which is correlated with anti-arthritic study. The knowledge regarding possible herb-drug interaction of NP might be helpful for physicians as well as patients using AP. So further studies should be done to understand the effect of other herbal ingredients of APE on NP as well as to predict the herb-drug interaction in humans.

Electrochemically controlled in-tube solid phase microextraction of naproxen from urine samples using an experimental design

Electrochemically controlled in-tube SPME approach, which increased the sensitivity and decreased the extraction time, was reported.

Innovative sampling and extraction methods for the determination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in water

Two different innovative approaches were used for the determination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in water: stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) and passive sampling, followed by electrospray ionization liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. SBSE was developed by comparing EG-Silicone and PDMS stir bars and optimizing main parameters to attain high preconcentration. Quantitative analysis was carried out by mass spectrometry in negative ionization mode and multiple reaction monitoring. The SBSE-LC-MS/MS method provided satisfactory figures of merit with LOD (7.5-71 ng L(-1)) and LOQ (22.5-213 ng L(-1)). The developed method was successfully applied to real samples collected from river water and wastewater effluents. The obtained results showed the presence of all analytes at trace levels, in a wide range of concentrations. The passive sampling approach was carried out by using Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS); samplers were deployed for 15 days in river and tap water, allowing to detect analytes at ultra-trace levels. Time-Weighted Average concentration of NSAIDs in river water was estimated in the range 0.33-0.46 ng L(-1), using the sampling rates previously obtained by means of a simple calibration system.

Solid phase microextraction and related techniques for drugs in biological samples

In drug discovery and development, the quantification of drugs in biological samples is an important task for the determination of the physiological performance of the investigated drugs. After sampling, the next step in the analytical process is sample preparation. Because of the low concentration levels of drug in plasma and the variety of the metabolites, the selected extraction technique should be virtually exhaustive. Recent developments of sample handling techniques are directed, from one side, toward automatization and online coupling of sample preparation units. The primary objective of this review is to present the recent developments in microextraction sample preparation methods for analysis of drugs in biological fluids. Microextraction techniques allow for less consumption of solvent, reagents, and packing materials, and small sample volumes can be used. In this review the use of solid phase microextraction (SPME), microextraction in packed sorbent (MEPS), and stir-bar sorbtive extraction (SBSE) in drug analysis will be discussed. In addition, the use of new sorbents such as monoliths and molecularly imprinted polymers will be presented.

HPLC method for naproxen determination in human plasma and its application to a pharmacokinetic study in Turkey

A simple high-performance liquid chromatography method has been developed for the determination of naproxen in human plasma. The method was validated on an Ace C18 column using ultraviolet detection. The mobile phase consisted of 20 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7) containing 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid-acetonitrile (65:35, v/v). The calibration curve was linear between the concentration ranges of 0.10 and 5.0 µg/mL. Intra-day and inter-day precision values for naproxen in plasma were less than 4.84, and accuracy (relative error) was better than 3.67%. The extraction recovery values of naproxen from human plasma were between 91.0 and 98.9%. The limits of detection and quantification of naproxen were 0.03 and 0.10 µg/mL, respectively. Also, this assay was applied to determine the pharmacokinetic parameters of naproxen in six healthy Turkish volunteers who had been given 220 mg of naproxen.

Fabrication of new drug imprinting polymer beads for selective extraction of naproxen in human urine and pharmaceutical samples

A drug imprinting polymer based on suspension polymerization was prepared with N,N-dimethylacrylamide and 1-(N,N-bis-carboxymethyl) amino-3-allylglycerol as functional monomers, N,N methylene diacrylamid as the cross-linker, naproxen as the template and 2,2'-azobis (2-methylbutyronitrile) as the initiator. The drug imprinted polymer was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, elemental analysis, thermogravimetric analysis and transmission electron microscopy. The imprinted polymer of agglomerated micro-particles with multi-pores was used for solid phase extraction. The drug imprinted polymer sorbent was selective for naproxen. The profile of the naproxen uptake by the sorbent reflects good accessibility of the active sites in the imprinted polymer sorbent. In addition, the equilibrium adsorption data of naproxen by imprinted polymer were analyzed by Langmuir isotherm models. The developed method was utilized for determination of naproxen in pharmaceutical and human urine samples by high performance liquid chromatography with satisfactory results.