Proton coupled electron transfer and redox active tyrosines in Photosystem II

Flavin-induced charge separation in transmembrane model peptides

Hydrophobic peptide models derived from the α-helical transmembrane segment of the epidermal growth factor receptor were synthetically modified with a flavin amino acid as a photo-inducible charge donor and decorated with tryptophans along the helix as charge acceptors. The helical conformation of the peptides was conserved despite the modifications, notably also in lipid vesicles and multibilayers. Their ability to facilitate photo-induced transmembrane charge transport was examined by means of steady-state and time-resolved optical spectroscopy. The first tryptophan next to the flavin donor plays a major role in initiating the charge transport near the N-terminus, while the other tryptophans might promote charge transport along the transmembrane helix. These artificially modified, but still naturally derived helical peptides are important models for studying transmembrane electron transfer and the principles of photosynthesis.

Electrochemical generation of high-valent oxo-manganese complexes featuring an anionic N5 ligand and their role in O-O bond formation

Generation of high-valent oxomanganese complexes through controlled removal of protons and electrons from low-valent congeners is a crucial step toward the synthesis of functional analogues of the native oxygen evolving complex (OEC). In-depth studies of the water oxidation activity of such biomimetic compounds help in understanding the mechanism of O-O bond formation presumably occurring in the last step of the photosynthetic cycle. Scarce reports of reactive high-valent oxomanganese complexes underscore the impetus for the present work, wherein we report the electrochemical generation of the non-heme oxomanganese(IV) species [(dpaq)MnIV(O)]+ (2) through a proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) process from the hydroxomanganese complex [(dpaq)MnIII(OH)]ClO4 (1). Controlled potential spectroelectrochemical studies of 1 in wet acetonitrile at 1.45 V vs. NHE revealed quantitative formation of 2 within 10 min. The high-valent oxomanganese(IV) transient exhibited remarkable stability and could be reverted to the starting complex (1) by switching the potential to 0.25 V vs. NHE. The formation of 2via PCET oxidation of 1 demonstrates an alternate pathway for the generation of the oxomanganese(IV) transient (2) without the requirement of redox-inactive metal ions or acid additives as proposed earlier. Theoretical studies predict that one-electron oxidation of [(dpaq)MnIV(O)]+ (2) forms a manganese(V)-oxo (3) species, which can be oxidized further by one electron to a formal manganese(VI)-oxo transient (4). Theoretical analyses suggest that the first oxidation event (2 to 3) takes place at the metal-based d-orbital, whereas, in the second oxidation process (3 to 4), the electron eliminates from an orbital composed of equitable contribution from the metal and the ligand, leaving a single electron in the quinoline-dominant orbital in the doublet ground spin state of the manganese(VI)-oxo species (4). This mixed metal-ligand (quinoline)-based oxidation is proposed to generate a formal Mn(VI) species (4), a non-heme analogue of the species 'compound I', formed in the catalytic cycle of cytochrome P-450. We propose that the highly electrophilic species 4 catches water during cyclic voltammetry experiments and results in O-O bond formation leading to electrocatalytic oxidation of water to hydrogen peroxide.

Tyrosine residues initiated photopolymerization in living organisms

Towards intracellular engineering of living organisms, the development of new biocompatible polymerization system applicable for an intrinsically non-natural macromolecules synthesis for modulating living organism function/behavior is a key step. Herein, we find that the tyrosine residues in the cofactor-free proteins can be employed to mediate controlled radical polymerization under 405 nm light. A proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) mechanism between the excited-state TyrOH* residue in proteins and the monomer or the chain transfer agent is confirmed. By using Tyr-containing proteins, a wide range of well-defined polymers are successfully generated. Especially, the developed photopolymerization system shows good biocompatibility, which can achieve in-situ extracellular polymerization from the surface of yeast cells for agglutination/anti-agglutination functional manipulation or intracellular polymerization inside yeast cells, respectively. Besides providing a universal aqueous photopolymerization system, this study should contribute a new way to generate various non-natural polymers in vitro or in vivo to engineer living organism functions and behaviours.

Catalysis and Electron Transfer in De Novo Designed Metalloproteins

One of the hallmark advances in our understanding of metalloprotein function is showcased in our ability to design new, non-native, catalytically active protein scaffolds. This review highlights progress and milestone achievements in the field of de novo metalloprotein design focused on reports from the past decade with special emphasis on de novo designs couched within common subfields of bioinorganic study: heme binding proteins, monometal- and dimetal-containing catalytic sites, and metal-containing electron transfer sites. Within each subfield, we highlight several of what we have identified as significant and important contributions to either our understanding of that subfield or de novo metalloprotein design as a discipline. These reports are placed in context both historically and scientifically. General suggestions for future directions that we feel will be important to advance our understanding or accelerate discovery are discussed.

Directed Electron Transfer in Flavin Peptides with Oligoproline-Type Helical Conformation as Models for Flavin-Functional Proteins

To mimic the charge separation in functional proteins we studied flavin-modified peptides as models. They were synthesized as oligoprolines that typically form a polyproline type-II helix, because this secondary structure supports the electron transfer properties. We placed the flavin as photoexcitable chromophore and electron acceptor at the N-terminus. Tryptophans were placed as electron donors to direct the electron transfer over 0-3 intervening prolines. Spectroscopic studies revealed competitive photophysical pathways. The reference peptide without tryptophan shows dominant non-specific ET dynamics, leading to an ion pair formation, whereas peptides with tryptophans have weak non-specific ET and intensified directed electron transfer. By different excitation wavelengths, we can conclude that the corresponding ion pair state of flavin within the peptide environment has to be energetically located between the S1 and S4 states, whereas the directed electron transfer to tryptophan occurs directly from the S1 state. These photochemical results have fundamental significance for proteins with flavin as redoxactive cofactor.

Excited State Molecular Dynamics of Photoinduced Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer in Anthracene-Phenol-Pyridine Triads

Photoinduced proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) in anthracene-phenol-pyridine triads exhibits inverted region behavior, where the more thermodynamically favorable process is slower. The long-lived transient charge-separated state (CSS) associated with electron transfer from phenol to anthracene and inverted region behavior were only observed experimentally for certain triads. Herein, excited state molecular dynamics simulations were performed on four different triads to simulate the nonequilibrium dynamics following photoexcitation to the locally excited state (LES) of anthracene. These simulations identified two distinct PCET pathways: the triads exhibiting inverted region behavior transitioned from the LES to the CSS, whereas the other triads transitioned to a local electron-proton transfer (LEPT) state within phenol and pyridine. The simulations suggest that PCET to the LEPT state is slower than PCET to the CSS and provides an alternative relaxation pathway. The mechanistic pathways, as well as the time scales of the electron and proton transfers, can be controlled by tuning the substituents.

Catalysis and Electron Transfer in De Novo Designed Helical Scaffolds

The relationship between protein structure and function is one of the greatest puzzles within biochemistry. De novo metalloprotein design is a way to wipe the board clean and determine what is required to build in function from the ground up in an unrelated structure. This Review focuses on protein design efforts to create de novo metalloproteins within alpha-helical scaffolds. Examples of successful designs include those with carbonic anhydrase or nitrite reductase activity by incorporating a ZnHis3 or CuHis3 site, or that recapitulate the spectroscopic properties of unique electron-transfer sites in cupredoxins (CuHis2 Cys) or rubredoxins (FeCys4 ). This work showcases the versatility of alpha helices as scaffolds for metalloprotein design and the progress that is possible through careful rational design. Our studies cover the invariance of carbonic anhydrase activity with different site positions and scaffolds, refinement of our cupredoxin models, and enhancement of nitrite reductase activity up to 1000-fold.

Impact of Local Electrostatics on the Redox Properties of Tryptophan Radicals in Azurin: Implications for Redox-Active Tryptophans in Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer

Tyrosine and tryptophan play critical roles in facilitating proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) processes essential to life. The local protein environment is anticipated to modulate the thermodynamics of amino acid radicals to achieve controlled, unidirectional PCET. Herein, square-wave voltammetry was employed to investigate the electrostatic effects on the redox properties of tryptophan in two variants of the protein azurin. Each variant contains a single redox-active tryptophan, W48 or W108, in a unique and buried protein environment. These tryptophan residues exhibit reversible square-wave voltammograms. A Pourbaix plot, representing the reduction potentials versus pH, is presented for the non-H-bonded W48, which has potentials comparable to those of tryptophan in solution. The reduction potentials of W108 are seen to be increased by more than 100 mV across the same pH range. Molecular dynamics shows that, despite its buried indole ring, the N-H of W108 hydrogen bonds with a water cluster, while W48 is completely excluded from interactions with water or polar groups. These redox properties provide insight into the role of the protein in tuning the reactivity of tryptophan radicals, a requirement for controlled biological PCET.

Quantitative analysis of the coupling between proton and electron transport in peptide/manganese oxide hybrid films

A novel platform is proposed to quantify the coupling phenomenon between electrons and protons in tyrosine-rich peptide/manganese oxide hybrid films at room temperature.

Substituent Effects on Photochemistry of Anthracene-Phenol-Pyridine Triads Revealed by Multireference Calculations

Inverted region behavior for concerted proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) was recently demonstrated for biomimetic anthracene-phenol-pyridine molecular triads. Photoexcitation of the anthracene to a locally excited state (LES) is followed by concerted electron transfer from the phenol to the anthracene and proton transfer from the phenol to the pyridine, forming a relatively long-lived charge separated state (CSS). The long-lived CSS and the inverted region behavior associated with the decay from the CSS to the ground state through charge recombination were experimentally observed only for triads with certain substituents on the anthracene and the pyridine. To explain this distinction, we computed the proton potential energy curves in four substituted triads using the complete active space self-consistent-field method and multireference perturbation theory, including solvent effects with a dielectric continuum model. The calculations revealed a local electron-proton transfer (LEPT) state, in which both the electron and proton transfer from the phenol to the pyridine. When the LEPT state is lower in energy than the CSS, it may provide an alternative pathway for fast decay from the LES to the ground state and thereby preclude detection of the CSS and the inverted region behavior. These calculations predict that substituents stabilizing negative charge on the pyridine and destabilizing negative charge on the anthracene will favor the LEPT pathway, while substituents with the reverse effects will favor the CSS pathway, which could exhibit inverted region behavior. These insights about the stabilization of energy-storing charge-separated states have implications for designing and controlling PCET reactions in artificial photosynthetic systems and other energy conversion processes.

Tuning Radical Relay Residues by Proton Management Rescues Protein Electron Hopping

Transient tyrosine and tryptophan radicals play key roles in the electron transfer (ET) reactions of photosystem (PS) II, ribonucleotide reductase (RNR), photolyase, and many other proteins. However, Tyr and Trp are not functionally interchangeable, and the factors controlling their reactivity are often unclear. Cytochrome c peroxidase (CcP) employs a Trp191^•+ radical to oxidize reduced cytochrome c (Cc). Although a Tyr191 replacement also forms a stable radical, it does not support rapid ET from Cc. Here we probe the redox properties of CcP Y191 by non-natural amino acid substitution, altering the ET driving force and manipulating the protic environment of Y191. Higher potential fluorotyrosine residues increase ET rates marginally, but only addition of a hydrogen bond donor to Tyr191^• (via Leu232His or Glu) substantially alters activity by increasing the ET rate by nearly 30-fold. ESR and ESEEM spectroscopies, crystallography, and pH-dependent ET kinetics provide strong evidence for hydrogen bond formation to Y191^• by His232/Glu232. Rate measurements and rapid freeze quench ESR spectroscopy further reveal differences in radical propagation and Cc oxidation that support an increased Y191^• formal potential of ∼200 mV in the presence of E232. Hence, Y191 inactivity results from a potential drop owing to Y191^•+ deprotonation. Incorporation of a well-positioned base to accept and donate back a hydrogen bond upshifts the Tyr^• potential into a range where it can effectively oxidize Cc. These findings have implications for the Y_Z/Y_D radicals of PS II, hole-hopping in RNR and cryptochrome, and engineering proteins for long-range ET reactions.

Ultrafast Oxidation of a Tyrosine by Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer Promotes Light Activation of an Animal-like Cryptochrome

The animal-like cryptochrome of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (CraCRY) is a recently discovered photoreceptor that controls the transcriptional profile and sexual life cycle of this alga by both blue and red light. CraCRY has the uncommon feature of efficient formation and longevity of the semireduced neutral form of its FAD cofactor upon blue light illumination. Tyrosine Y₃₇₃ plays a crucial role by elongating , as fourth member, the electron transfer (ET) chain found in most other cryptochromes and DNA photolyases, which comprises a conserved tryptophan triad. Here, we report the full mechanism of light-induced FADH^• formation in CraCRY using transient absorption spectroscopy from hundreds of femtoseconds to seconds. Electron transfer starts from ultrafast reduction of excited FAD to FAD^•- by the proximal tryptophan (0.4 ps) and is followed by delocalized migration of the produced WH^•+ radical along the tryptophan triad (∼4 and ∼50 ps). Oxidation of Y₃₇₃ by coupled ET to WH^•+ and deprotonation then proceeds in ∼800 ps, without any significant kinetic isotope effect, nor a pH effect between pH 6.5 and 9.0. The FAD^•-/Y₃₇₃^• pair is formed with high quantum yield (∼60%); its intrinsic decay by recombination is slow (∼50 ms), favoring reduction of Y₃₇₃^• by extrinsic agents and protonation of FAD^•- to form the long-lived, red-light absorbing FADH^• species. Possible mechanisms of tyrosine oxidation by ultrafast proton-coupled ET in CraCRY, a process about 40 times faster than the archetypal tyrosine-Z oxidation in photosystem II, are discussed in detail.

Structure and Function of Tryptophan-Tyrosine Dyads in Biomimetic β Hairpins

Tyrosine–tryptophan (YW) dyads are ubiquitous structural motifs in enzymes and play roles in proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) and, possibly, protection from oxidative stress. Here, we describe the function of YW dyads in de novo designed 18-mer, β hairpins. In Peptide M, a YW dyad is formed between W14 and Y5. A UV hypochromic effect and an excitonic Cotton signal are observed, in addition to singlet, excited state (W*) and fluorescence emission spectral shifts. In a second Peptide, Peptide MW, a Y5–W13 dyad is formed diagonally across the strand and distorts the backbone. On a picosecond timescale, the W* excited-state decay kinetics are similar in all peptides but are accelerated relative to amino acids in solution. In Peptide MW, the W* spectrum is consistent with increased conformational flexibility. In Peptide M and MW, the electron paramagnetic resonance spectra obtained after UV photolysis are characteristic of tyrosine and tryptophan radicals at 160 K. Notably, at pH 9, the radical photolysis yield is decreased in Peptide M and MW, compared to that in a tyrosine and tryptophan mixture. This protective effect is not observed at pH 11 and is not observed in peptides containing a tryptophan–histidine dyad or tryptophan alone. The YW dyad protective effect is attributed to an increase in the radical recombination rate. This increase in rate can be facilitated by hydrogen-bonding interactions, which lower the barrier for the PCET reaction at pH 9. These results suggest that the YW dyad structural motif promotes radical quenching under conditions of reactive oxygen stress.

Theoretical study of proton coupled electron transfer reaction in the light state of the AppA BLUF photoreceptor

The BLUF (blue light sensor using flavin adenine dinucleotide) domain is widely studied as a prototype for proton coupled electron transfer (PCET) reactions in biological systems. In this work, the photo-induced concerted PCET reaction from the light state of the AppA BLUF domain is investigated. To model the simultaneous transfer of two protons in the reaction, two-dimensional potential energy surfaces for the double proton transfer are first calculated for the locally excited and charge transfer states, which are then used to obtain the vibrational wave function overlaps and the vibrational energy levels. Contributions to the PCET rate constant from each pair of vibronic states are then analyzed using the theory based on the Fermi's golden rule. We show that, the recently proposed light state structure of the BLUF domain with a tautomerized Gln63 residue is consistent with the concerted transfer of one electron and two protons. It is also found that, thermal fluctuations of the protein structure, especially the proton donor-acceptor distances, play an important role in determining the PCET reaction rate. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Tracking Reactive Water and Hydrogen-Bonding Networks in Photosynthetic Oxygen Evolution

In oxygenic photosynthesis, photosystem II (PSII) converts water to molecular oxygen through four photodriven oxidation events at a Mn₄CaO₅ cluster. A tyrosine, YZ (Y161 in the D1 polypeptide), transfers oxidizing equivalents from an oxidized, primary chlorophyll donor to the metal center. Calcium or its analogue, strontium, is required for activity. The Mn₄CaO₅ cluster and YZ are predicted to be hydrogen bonded in a water-containing network, which involves amide carbonyl groups, amino acid side chains, and water. This hydrogen-bonded network includes amino acid residues in intrinsic and extrinsic subunits. One of the extrinsic subunits, PsbO, is intrinsically disordered. This extensive (35 Å) network may be essential in facilitating proton release from substrate water. While it is known that some proteins employ internal water molecules to catalyze reactions, there are relatively few methods that can be used to study the role of water. In this Account, we review spectroscopic evidence from our group supporting the conclusion that the PSII hydrogen-bonding network is dynamic and that water in the network plays a direct role in catalysis. Two approaches, transient electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and reaction-induced FT-IR (RIFT-IR) spectroscopies, were used. The EPR experiments focused on the decay kinetics of YZ• via recombination at 190 K and the solvent isotope, pH, and calcium dependence of these kinetics. The RIFT-IR experiments focused on shifts in amide carbonyl frequencies, induced by photo-oxidation of the metal cluster, and on the isotope-based assignment of bands to internal, small protonated water clusters at 190, 263, and 283 K. To conduct these experiments, PSII was prepared in selected steps along the catalytic pathway, the S_n state cycle (n = 0-4). This cycle ultimately generates oxygen. In the EPR studies, S-state dependent changes were observed in the YZ• lifetime and in its solvent isotope effect. The YZ• lifetime depended on the presence of calcium at pH 7.5, but not at pH 6.0, suggesting a two-donor model for PCET. At pH 6.0 or 7.5, barium and ammonia both slowed the rate of YZ• recombination, consistent with disruption of the hydrogen-bonding network. In the RIFT-IR studies of the S state transitions, infrared bands associated with the transient protonation and deprotonation of internal waters were identified by D₂O and H₂¹⁸O labeling. The infrared bands of these protonated water clusters, W_n⁺ (or nH₂O(H₃O)⁺, n = 5-6), exhibited flash dependence and were produced during the S₁ to S₂ and S₃ to S₀ transitions. Calcium dependence was observed at pH 7.5, but not at pH 6.0. S-state induced shifts were observed in amide C═O frequencies during the S₁ to S₂ transition and attributed to alterations in hydrogen bonding, based on ammonia sensitivity. In addition, isotope editing of the extrinsic subunit, PsbO, established that amide vibrational bands of this lumenal subunit respond to the S state transitions and that PsbO is a structural template for the reaction center. Taken together, these spectroscopic results support the hypothesis that proton transfer networks, extending from YZ to PsbO, play a functional and dynamic role in photosynthetic oxygen evolution.

Identification of the TyrOH•+ Radical Cation in the Flavoenzyme TrmFO

Tyrosine (TyrOH) and tryptophan radicals play important roles as intermediates in biochemical charge-transfer reactions. Tryptophanyl radicals have been observed both in their protonated cation form and in their unprotonated neutral form, but to date, tyrosyl radicals have only been observed in their unprotonated form. With a genetically modified form of the flavoenzyme TrmFO as a suitable model system and using ultrafast fluorescence and absorption spectroscopy, we characterize its protonated precursor TyrOH^•+, and we show this species to have a distinct visible absorption band and a transition moment that we suggest to lie close to the phenol symmetry axis. TyrOH^•+ is formed in ∼1 ps by electron transfer to excited flavin and decays in ∼3 ps by charge recombination. These findings imply that TyrOH oxidation does not necessarily induce its concerted deprotonation. Our results will allow disentangling of photoproduct states in flavoproteins in often-encountered complex situations and more generally are important for understanding redox chains relying on tyrosyl intermediates.

Intramolecular Photogeneration of a Tyrosine Radical in a Designed Protein

Long-distance biological electron transfer occurs through a hopping mechanism and often involves tyrosine as a high potential intermediate, for example in the early charge separation steps during photosynthesis. Protein design allows for the development of minimal systems to study the underlying principles of complex systems. Herein, we report the development of the first ruthenium-linked designed protein for the photogeneration of a tyrosine radical by intramolecular electron transfer.

Critical Aspects of Heme-Peroxo-Cu Complex Structure and Nature of Proton Source Dictate Metal-O(peroxo) Breakage versus Reductive O-O Cleavage Chemistry

The 4H+/4e- reduction of O2 to water, a key fuel-cell reaction also carried out in biology by oxidase enzymes, includes the critical O-O bond reductive cleavage step. Mechanistic investigations on active-site model compounds, which are synthesized by rational design to incorporate systematic variations, can focus on and resolve answers to fundamental questions, including protonation and/or H-bonding aspects, which accompany electron transfer. Here, we describe the nature and comparative reactivity of two low-spin heme-peroxo-Cu complexes, LS-4DCHIm, [(DCHIm)F8FeIII-(O22-)-CuII(DCHIm)4]+, and LS-3DCHIm, [(DCHIm)F8FeIII-(O22-)-CuII(DCHIm)3]+ (F8 = tetrakis(2,6-difluorophenyl)-porphyrinate; DCHIm = 1,5-dicyclohexylimidazole), toward different proton (4-nitrophenol and [DMF·H+](CF3SO3-)) (DMF = dimethyl-formamide) or electron (decamethylferrocene (Fc*)) sources. Spectroscopic reactivity studies show that differences in structure and electronic properties of LS-3DCHIm and LS-4DCHIm lead to significant differences in behavior. LS-3DCHIm is resistant to reduction, is unreactive toward weakly acidic 4-NO2-phenol, and stronger acids cleave the metal-O bonds, releasing H2O2. By contrast, LS-4DCHIm forms an adduct with 4-NO2-phenol, which includes an H-bond to the peroxo O-atom distal to Fe (resonance Raman (rR) spectroscopy and DFT). With addition of Fc* (2 equiv overall required), O-O reductive cleavage occurs, giving water, Fe(III), and Cu(II) products; however, a kinetic study reveals a one-electron rate-determining process, ket = 1.6 M-1 s-1 (-90 °C). The intermediacy of a high-valent [(DCHIm)F8FeIV═O] species is thus implied, and separate experiments show that one-electron reduction-protonation of [(DCHIm)F8FeIV═O] occurs faster (ket2 = 5.0 M-1 s-1), consistent with the overall postulated mechanism. The importance of the H-bonding interaction as a prerequisite for reductive cleavage is highlighted.

Coupling Protein Dynamics with Proton Transport in Human Carbonic Anhydrase II

The role of protein dynamics in enzyme catalysis is one of the most highly debated topics in enzymology. The main controversy centers around what may be defined as functionally significant conformational fluctuations and how, if at all, these fluctuations couple to enzyme catalyzed events. To shed light on this debate, the conformational dynamics along the transition path surmounting the highest free energy barrier have been herein investigated for the rate limiting proton transport event in human carbonic anhydrase (HCA) II. Special attention has been placed on whether the motion of an excess proton is correlated with fluctuations in the surrounding protein and solvent matrix, which may be rare on the picosecond and subpicosecond time scales of molecular motions. It is found that several active site residues, which do not directly participate in the proton transport event, have a significant impact on the dynamics of the excess proton. These secondary participants are shown to strongly influence the active site environment, resulting in the creation of water clusters that are conducive to fast, moderately slow, or slow proton transport events. The identification and characterization of these secondary participants illuminates the role of protein dynamics in the catalytic efficiency of HCA II.

Stopped-Flow Studies of the Reduction of the Copper Centers Suggest a Bifurcated Electron Transfer Pathway in Peptidylglycine Monooxygenase

Peptidylglycine monooxygenase (PHM) is a dicopper enzyme that plays a vital role in the amidation of glycine-extended pro-peptides. One of the crucial aspects of its chemistry is the transfer of two electrons from an electron-storing and -transferring site (CuH) to the oxygen binding site and catalytic center (CuM) over a distance of 11 Å during one catalytic turnover event. Here we present our studies of the first electron transfer (ET) step (reductive phase) in wild-type (WT) PHM as well as its variants. Stopped flow was used to record the reduction kinetic traces using the chromophoric agent N,N-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine dihydrochloride (DMPD) as the reductant. The reduction was found to be biphasic in the WT PHM with an initial fast phase (17.2 s(-1)) followed by a much slower phase (0.46 s(-1)). We were able to ascribe the fast and slow phase to the CuH and CuM sites, respectively, by making use of the H242A and H107AH108A mutants that contain only the CuH site and CuM site, respectively. In the absence of substrate, the redox potentials determined by cyclic voltammetry were 270 mV (CuH site) and -15 mV (CuM site), but binding of substrate (Ac-YVG) was found to alter both potentials so that they converged to a common value of 83 mV. Substrate binding also accelerated the slow reductive phase by ~10-fold, an effect that could be explained at least partially by the equalization of the reduction potential of the copper centers. Studies of H108A showed that the ET to the CuM site is blocked, highlighting the role of the H108 ligand as a component of the reductive ET pathway. Strikingly, the rate of reduction of the H172A variant was unaffected despite the rate of catalysis being 3 orders of magnitude slower than that of the WT PHM. These studies strongly indicate that the reductive phase and catalytic phase ET pathways are different and suggest a bifurcated ET pathway in PHM. We propose that H172 and Y79 form part of an alternate pathway for the catalytic phase ET while the H108 ligand along with the water molecules and substrate form the reductive phase ET pathway.

Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer and a Tyrosine-Histidine Pair in a Photosystem II-Inspired β-Hairpin Maquette: Kinetics on the Picosecond Time Scale

Photosystem II (PSII) and ribonucleotide reductase employ oxidation and reduction of the tyrosine aromatic ring in radical transport pathways. Tyrosine-based reactions involve either proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) or electron transfer (ET) alone, depending on the pH and the pKa of tyrosine's phenolic oxygen. In PSII, a subset of the PCET reactions are mediated by a tyrosine-histidine redox-driven proton relay, YD-His189. Peptide A is a PSII-inspired β-hairpin, which contains a single tyrosine (Y5) and histidine (H14). Previous electrochemical characterization indicated that Peptide A conducts a net PCET reaction between Y5 and H14, which have a cross-strand π-π interaction. The kinetic impact of H14 has not yet been explored. Here, we address this question through time-resolved absorption spectroscopy and 280-nm photolysis, which generates a neutral tyrosyl radical. The formation and decay of the neutral tyrosyl radical at 410 nm were monitored in Peptide A and its variant, Peptide C, in which H14 is replaced by cyclohexylalanine (Cha14). Significantly, both electron transfer (ET, pL 11, L = lyonium) and PCET (pL 9) were accelerated in Peptide A and C, compared to model tyrosinate or tyrosine at the same pL. Increased electronic coupling, mediated by the peptide backbone, can account for this rate acceleration. Deuterium exchange gave no significant solvent isotope effect in the peptides. At pL 9, but not at pL 11, the reaction rate decreased when H14 was mutated to Cha14. This decrease in rate is attributed to an increase in reorganization energy in the Cha14 mutant. The Y5-H14 mechanism in Peptide A is reminiscent of proton- and electron-transfer events involving YD-H189 in PSII. These results document a mechanism by which proton donors and acceptors can regulate the rate of PCET reactions.

Manganese Compounds as Water-Oxidizing Catalysts: From the Natural Water-Oxidizing Complex to Nanosized Manganese Oxide Structures

All cyanobacteria, algae, and plants use a similar water-oxidizing catalyst for water oxidation. This catalyst is housed in Photosystem II, a membrane-protein complex that functions as a light-driven water oxidase in oxygenic photosynthesis. Water oxidation is also an important reaction in artificial photosynthesis because it has the potential to provide cheap electrons from water for hydrogen production or for the reduction of carbon dioxide on an industrial scale. The water-oxidizing complex of Photosystem II is a Mn-Ca cluster that oxidizes water with a low overpotential and high turnover frequency number of up to 25-90 molecules of O2 released per second. In this Review, we discuss the atomic structure of the Mn-Ca cluster of the Photosystem II water-oxidizing complex from the viewpoint that the underlying mechanism can be informative when designing artificial water-oxidizing catalysts. This is followed by consideration of functional Mn-based model complexes for water oxidation and the issue of Mn complexes decomposing to Mn oxide. We then provide a detailed assessment of the chemistry of Mn oxides by considering how their bulk and nanoscale properties contribute to their effectiveness as water-oxidizing catalysts.

Direct Interfacial Y731 Oxidation in α2 by a Photoβ2 Subunit of E. coli Class Ia Ribonucleotide Reductase

Proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) is a fundamental mechanism important in a wide range of biological processes including the universal reaction catalysed by ribonucleotide reductases (RNRs) in making de novo, the building blocks required for DNA replication and repair. These enzymes catalyse the conversion of nucleoside diphosphates (NDPs) to deoxynucleoside diphosphates (dNDPs). In the class Ia RNRs, NDP reduction involves a tyrosyl radical mediated oxidation occurring over 35 Å across the interface of the two required subunits (β2 and α2) involving multiple PCET steps and the conserved tyrosine triad [Y356(β2)-Y731(α2)-Y730(α2)]. We report the synthesis of an active photochemical RNR (photoRNR) complex in which a Re(I)-tricarbonyl phenanthroline ([Re]) photooxidant is attached site-specifically to the Cys in the Y356C-(β2) subunit and an ionizable, 2,3,5-trifluorotyrosine (2,3,5-F3Y) is incorporated in place of Y731 in α2. This intersubunit PCET pathway is investigated by ns laser spectroscopy on [Re356]-β2:2,3,5-F3Y731-α2 in the presence of substrate, CDP, and effector, ATP. This experiment has allowed analysis of the photoinjection of a radical into α2 from β2 in the absence of the interfacial Y356 residue. The system is competent for light-dependent substrate turnover. Time-resolved emission experiments reveal an intimate dependence of the rate of radical injection on the protonation state at position Y731(α2), which in turn highlights the importance of a well-coordinated proton exit channel involving the key residues, Y356 and Y731, at the subunit interface.

Influence of thylakoid membrane lipids on the structure and function of the plant photosystem II core complex

MGDG leads to a dimerization of isolated, monomeric PSII core complexes. SQDG and PG induce a detachment of CP43 from the PSII core, thereby disturbing the intrinsic PSII electron transport. The influence of the four thylakoid membrane lipids monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG), digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG), sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol (SQDG) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG) on the structure and function of isolated monomeric photosystem (PS) II core complexes was investigated. Incubation with the negatively charged lipids SQDG and PG led to a loss of the long-wavelength 77 K fluorescence emission at 693 nm that is associated with the inner antenna proteins. The neutral galactolipids DGDG and MGDG had no or only minor effects on the fluorescence emission spectra of the PSII core complexes, respectively. Pigment analysis, absorption and 77 K fluorescence excitation spectroscopy showed that incubation with SQDG and PG led to an exposure of chlorophyll molecules to the surrounding medium followed by conversion to pheophytin under acidic conditions. Size-exclusion chromatography and polypeptide analysis corroborated the findings of the spectroscopic measurements and pigment analysis. They showed that the negatively charged lipid SQDG led to a dissociation of the inner antenna protein CP43 and the 27- and 25-kDa apoproteins of the light-harvesting complex II, that were also associated with a part of the PSII core complexes used in the present study. Incubation of PSII core complexes with MGDG, on the other hand, induced an almost complete dimerization of the monomeric PSII. Measurements of the fast PSII fluorescence induction demonstrated that MGDG and DGDG only had a minor influence on the reduction kinetics of plastoquinone QA and the artificial PSII electron acceptor 2,5-dimethyl-p-benzoquinone (DMBQ). SQDG and, to a lesser extent, PG perturbed the intrinsic PSII electron transport significantly.

Reaction dynamics and proton coupled electron transfer: studies of tyrosine-based charge transfer in natural and biomimetic systems

In bioenergetic reactions, electrons are transferred long distances via a hopping mechanism. In photosynthesis and DNA synthesis, the aromatic amino acid residue, tyrosine, functions as an intermediate that is transiently oxidized and reduced during long distance electron transfer. At physiological pH values, oxidation of tyrosine is associated with a deprotonation of the phenolic oxygen, giving rise to a proton coupled electron transfer (PCET) reaction. Tyrosine-based PCET reactions are important in photosystem II, which carries out the light-induced oxidation of water, and in ribonucleotide reductase, which reduces ribonucleotides to form deoxynucleotides. Photosystem II contains two redox-active tyrosines, YD (Y160 in the D2 polypeptide) and YZ (Y161 in the D1 polypeptide). YD forms a light-induced stable radical, while YZ functions as an essential charge relay, oxidizing the catalytic Mn₄CaO₅ cluster on each of four photo-oxidation reactions. In Escherichia coli class 1a RNR, the β2 subunit contains the radical initiator, Y122O•, which is reversibly reduced and oxidized in long range electron transfer with the α2 subunit. In the isolated E. coli β2 subunit, Y122O• is a stable radical, but Y122O• is activated for rapid PCET in an α2β2 substrate/effector complex. Recent results concerning the structure and function of YD, YZ, and Y122 are reviewed here. Comparison is made to recent results derived from bioengineered proteins and biomimetic compounds, in which tyrosine-based charge transfer mechanisms have been investigated. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Vibrational spectroscopies and bioenergetic systems.

Photo-oxidation of tyrosine in a bio-engineered bacterioferritin 'reaction centre'-a protein model for artificial photosynthesis

The photosynthetic reaction centre (RC) is central to the conversion of solar energy into chemical energy and is a model for bio-mimetic engineering approaches to this end. We describe bio-engineering of a Photosystem II (PSII) RC inspired peptide model, building on our earlier studies. A non-photosynthetic haem containing bacterioferritin (BFR) from Escherichia coli that expresses as a homodimer was used as a protein scaffold, incorporating redox-active cofactors mimicking those of PSII. Desirable properties include: a di-nuclear metal binding site which provides ligands for bivalent metals, a hydrophobic pocket at the dimer interface which can bind a photosensitive porphyrin and presence of tyrosine residues proximal to the bound cofactors, which can be utilised as efficient electron-tunnelling intermediates. Light-induced electron transfer from proximal tyrosine residues to the photo-oxidised ZnCe6(•+), in the modified BFR reconstituted with both ZnCe6 and Mn(II), is presented. Three site-specific tyrosine variants (Y25F, Y58F and Y45F) were made to localise the redox-active tyrosine in the engineered system. The results indicate that: presence of bound Mn(II) is necessary to observe tyrosine oxidation in all BFR variants; Y45 the most important tyrosine as an immediate electron donor to the oxidised ZnCe6(•+) and that Y25 and Y58 are both redox-active in this system, but appear to function interchangebaly. High-resolution (2.1Å) crystal structures of the tyrosine variants show that there are no mutation-induced effects on the overall 3-D structure of the protein. Small effects are observed in the Y45F variant. Here, the BFR-RC represents a protein model for artificial photosynthesis.

Molecular eyes: proteins that transform light into biological information

Most biological photoreceptors are protein/cofactor complexes that induce a physiological reaction upon absorption of a photon. Therefore, these proteins represent signal converters that translate light into biological information. Researchers use this property to stimulate and study various biochemical processes conveniently and non-invasively by the application of light, an approach known as optogenetics. Here, we summarize the recent experimental progress on the family of blue light receptors using FAD (BLUF) receptors. Several BLUF photoreceptors modulate second messenger levels and thus represent highly interesting tools for optogenetic application. In order to activate a coupled effector protein, the flavin-binding pocket of the BLUF domain undergoes a subtle rearrangement of the hydrogen network upon blue light absorption. The hydrogen bond switch is facilitated by the ultrafast light-induced proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) between a tyrosine and the flavin in less than a nanosecond and remains stable on a long enough timescale for biochemical reactions to take place. The cyclic nature of the photoinduced reaction makes BLUF domains powerful model systems to study protein/cofactor interaction, protein-modulated PCET and novel mechanisms of biological signalling. The ultrafast nature of the photoconversion as well as the subtle structural rearrangement requires sophisticated spectroscopic and molecular biological methods to study and understand this highly intriguing signalling process.

First site-specific incorporation of a noncanonical amino acid into the photosynthetic oxygen-evolving complex

In photosystem II (PSII), water is oxidized at the oxygen-evolving complex. This process occurs through a light-induced cycle that produces oxygen and protons. While coupled proton and electron transfer reactions play an important role in PSII and other proteins, direct detection of internal proton transfer reactions is challenging. Here, we demonstrate that the unnatural amino acid, 7-azatryptophan (7AW), has unique, pH-sensitive vibrational frequencies, which are sensitive markers of proton transfer. The intrinsically disordered, PSII subunit, PsbO, which contains a single W residue (Trp241), was engineered to contain 7AW at position 241. Fluorescence shows that 7AW-241 is buried in a hydrophobic environment. Reconstitution of 7AW(241)PsbO to PSII had no significant impact on oxygen evolution activity or flash-dependent protein dynamics. We conclude that directed substitution of 7AW into other structural domains is likely to provide a nonperturbative spectroscopic probe, which can be used to define internal proton pathways in PsbO.