Effect of UV radiation and its implications on carotenoid pathway in Bixa orellana L

Enhanced pigment production from plants and microbes: a genome editing approach

Pigments are known for their vital roles in the growth and development of plants and microbes. In addition, they are also an imperative component of several industries, including textiles, foods, and pharmaceuticals, owing to their immense colours and therapeutic potential. Conventionally, pigments are obtained from plant resources, and the advent of in-vitro propagation techniques boosted the massive production. However, it could not meet the booming demand, leading to the incorporation of new genetic engineering tools. This review focuses on the role of various genetic engineering techniques in enhancing pigment production in plants and microorganisms. It also critically analyzes the efficacy and bottlenecks of these techniques in augmenting pigment biosynthesis. Furthermore, the use of microbes as pigment biofactories and the prospects in the field of genome editing to augment pigment synthesis are discussed. The limitations in the existing techniques underline the need for advanced genome editing strategies to broaden the mass production of pigments to meet the surging needs.

Extraction and characterization of carotenoid pigments with antioxidant and antibacterial potential from marine yeast Rhodotorula sp. KSB1

Pigments are coloring agents used widely in different industrial sectors. There is a demand for using natural pigments rather than synthetic dyes because of the health hazards caused by synthetic dyes. Many natural pigments have different medicinal activities which can contribute to the nutritional value of the product. This study was carried forward with marine yeasts which can produce pigments. A total of 4 marine yeast isolates were recovered from the mangrove area of Sundarbans, West Bengal, India. Among them, the isolate KSB1 produced 856 µg/g total concentration of carotenoid pigment and the dry mass weight was 3.56 g/L. The stability of the extracted pigments was checked using temperature, pH, UV light exposure time, and different saline conditions. The pigments were characterized using HPLC and FTIR analysis. All of the extracted pigments showed good antioxidant activity in DPPH, metal chelating, and reducing power assay. The pigments were also found to have good antibacterial activity against the bacterial pathogens Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, and Escherichia coli. Carotenoid pigment from KSB1 was found to have maximum activity in all the pathogens. The cytogenotoxicity using onion roots and phytotoxicity analysis indicated that the pigments were non-toxic and safe for cells. Finally, the potential marine yeast was identified using 18 s rRNA sequencing and identified as Rhodotorula sp. KSB1 (Accession no. MH782232).

LED light improves shoot multiplication, steviol glycosides and phenolic compounds biosynthesis in Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni in vitro culture

Light-emitting diode (LED) lamps are efficient elicitors of secondary metabolites. To investigate the influence of LED light on steviol glycosides (SGs) and phenolic compounds biosynthesis, stevia shoots were cultured under the following LED lights: white-WL, blue-B, red-R, 70% red and 30% blue-RB, 50% UV, 35% red and 15% blue-RBUV, 50% green, 35% red and 15% blue-RBG, 50% yellow, 35% red and 15% blue-RBY, 50% far-red, 35% red and 15% blue-RBFR and white fluorescent light (WFl, control). RBG light stimulated shoots' biomass production. RBFR had a beneficial impact on stevioside biosynthesis (1.62 mg/g dry weight, DW), while RBUV favoured the production of rebaudioside A (3.15 mg/g DW). Neochlorogenic, chlorogenic, caffeic, 4-feruloylquinic, isochlorogenic A, rosmarinic acids and the flavonoid quercitrin were identified in the obtained material. A stimulatory effect of RBFR and RBUV on the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds was noted. LED light also influenced stomata appearance, stomata density, photosynthetic pigments, soluble sugar content and antioxidant enzyme activities in stevia shoots. This is the first report to provide evidence of the stimulating effect of LED light on biomass yield, SGs production and phenolic compounds in stevia shoot cultures.

Plant terpenoid biosynthetic network and its multiple layers of regulation

Terpenoids constitute one of the largest and most chemically diverse classes of primary and secondary metabolites in nature with an exceptional breadth of functional roles in plants. Biosynthesis of all terpenoids begins with the universal five‑carbon building blocks, isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and its allylic isomer dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP), which in plants are derived from two compartmentally separated but metabolically crosstalking routes, the mevalonic acid (MVA) and methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathways. Here, we review the current knowledge on the terpenoid precursor pathways and highlight the critical hidden constraints as well as multiple regulatory mechanisms that coordinate and homeostatically govern carbon flux through the terpenoid biosynthetic network in plants.

Comprehensive Modulation of Secondary Metabolites in Terpenoid-Accumulating Mentha spicata L. via UV Radiation

In plants, secondary metabolites change in response to environmental conditions. These changes co-regulate resilience to stressful environmental conditions, plant growth and development, and interactions between plants and the wider ecosystem, while also affecting soil carbon storage and atmospheric and climatic conditions. The objective of this study was to determine the association between UV exposure and the contents of key metabolites, including amino acids, phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, carotenoids, tocopherols, and phytosterols. Mentha spicata plantlets were grown in tissue culture boxes for 30 days and then exposed to a low dose of broadband UV-B (291-315 nm; 2.8 kJm-2 biologically effective UV) enriched light for eight days. Metabolite contents were quantified either immediately after the final UV exposure, or after seven days of recovery under photosynthetically active radiation. It was found that UV promoted the production of flavonoids (1.8-fold) ahead of phenolic acids (unchanged). Furthermore, the majority of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, constituents of valuable mint essential oil, were significantly increased through UV treatment (up to 90-fold for α-linalool). In contrast, the contents of carotenoids and tocopherols did not increase following UV exposure. A comparison between plants sampled immediately after UV exposure and after seven days of recovery showed that there was an overall increase in the content of carotenoids, mono- and sesquiterpenes, phenolics, and amino acids following recovery, while the contents of sterols and tocopherols decreased. These UV-induced changes in metabolite profile may have important consequences for agriculture, ecology, and even the global climate, and they also provide an exciting opportunity to enhance crop value, facilitating the development of improved products with higher levels of essential oils and added benefits of enhanced flavour, colour, and bioactive content.

Ultraviolet-B and Heavy Metal-Induced Regulation of Secondary Metabolites in Medicinal Plants: A Review

Despite a rich history and economic importance, the potential of medicinal plants has not been fully explored under different abiotic stress conditions. Penetration of UV-B radiation and contamination of heavy metals are two important environmental stress for plants with remarkable influence on the defense-related and pharmaceutically important secondary metabolites of medicinal plants. UV-B and heavy metal contamination may become a critical issue that either positively or negatively affects the quality and quantity of secondary metabolites. Such effects may result from changes in the expression level of genes that encode the corresponding enzymes or the inactivation and/or stimulation of specific enzymes involved in the different biosynthetic pathways of the secondary metabolites. Therefore, a comprehensive study of the impact of UV-B and heavy metals individually and in combination on the biosynthesis and accumulation of secondary metabolites in medicinal plants is discussed in the present review.

Ultraviolet radiation promotes the production of hispidin polyphenols by medicinal mushroom Inonotus obliquus

Production of hispidin polyphenols in Inonotus obliquus is a stress-induced response triggered by environmental factors. As one of the important environmental factors, ultraviolet (UV) radiation plays regulatory roles in fungal growth and development. However, whether UV radiation regulates the formation of hispidin polyphenols remains to be established. In this study, we cultivated I. obliquus on solid medium and imposed intermittent UV radiation. We showed that UV exposure inhibited the growth of mycelia but increased the production of polyphenols. Further bioassays revealed that UV radiation also increased the catalytic activities of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and chalcone isomerase (CHI), up-regulated expression of genes related to redox, transcriptional regulation, and metabolism. In addition, the total extracts from the UV-irradiated group were more capable of scavenging DPPH and ABTS⁺ free radicals, especially at the later stage of culture. Thus, UV radiation, acting as one of the environmental factors, stimulated the accumulation of polyphenols in I. obliquus by regulating the activities of enzymes and the expression of genes related to growth and metabolism, and can be tentatively used as a feasible strategy to enhance the production of polyphenols in I. obliquus.

Enhancement of bioactive compounds in baby leaf Amaranthus tricolor L. using short-term application of UV-B irradiation

Baby-leaf vegetables are a trade name for leafy vegetables sold as leaves with petioles at the seedling stage. Amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor L.) is a nutritious baby-leaf vegetable containing many bioactive compounds. The effects of short-term ultraviolet B (UV-B) treatments on the growth and quality of baby leaf amaranth were studied, including the conditions of a 24-h recovery period after irradiation, and different irradiation intensities (3.0-9.0 W m^-2), irradiation periods (4-16 h), and cumulative energies (130-170 kJ m^-2). A recovery period experiment was conducted to observe the changes in the growth and quality of leaves at 0 and 24 h after UV-B irradiation. The results showed that the concentrations of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, anthocyanin, and ascorbic acid in the leaves, as well as the leaf antioxidant capacity increased 24 h after UV-B irradiation. Increases in target compound concentrations and antioxidant capacity without negative growth and appearance effects were observed in leaves irradiated with UV-B at 3, 6, and 9 W m^-2 for irradiation periods of 12 and 16, 8 and 12, and 4 h, respectively. The highest bioactive compound concentration was found in leaves irradiated with UV-B at 6 W m^-2 for 7 h (cumulative energy: 150 kJ m^-2). It was concluded that UV-B irradiation at 6 W m^-2 with a cumulative energy of 150 kJ m^-2 and a 24 h post-irradiation recovery period could be an appropriate treatment to increase bioactive compounds in baby leaf amaranth without causing appearance abnormalities.

Salicylic Acid Stimulates Defense Systems in Allium hirtifolium Grown under Water Deficit Stress

Nowadays, the use of the growth regulator salicylic acid for improving a plant's resistance to environmental stresses such as drought is increasing. The present study investigated the effect of salicylic acid on the physiological traits, antioxidant enzymes, yield, and quality of Allium hirtifolium (shallots) under drought conditions for three years (2016-2017, 2017-2018, and 2018-2019). The experiment was conducted as a split-plot based on a randomized complete block design with four repeats. Irrigation as the main factor in four levels of 100% (full irrigation), 75% and 50% of the plant water requirements with non-irrigation (dryland), and salicylic acid as the sub-factor in four levels of 0, 0.75, and 1 mmol, were the studied factors in this research. The combined analysis of three-year data showed that drought reduced leaf relative water content (RWC), membrane stability index (MSI), chlorophyll content, onion yield, and increased activity of antioxidant enzymes, proline content, tang, and allicin of shallots. Shallot spraying with salicylic acid improved leaf RWC, MSI, chlorophyll content, and onion yield. The highest yield of onion (1427 gr m-2) belonged to full irrigation and foliar application of 1 mmol salicylic acid. The lowest yield (419.8 gr m-2) belonged to plats with non-irrigation and non-application of salicylic acid. By improving the effective physiological traits in resistance to water deficit, salicylic acid adjusted the effects of water deficit on the yield of shallots. Foliar application of 1 mmol salicylic acid in dryland and irrigation of 50% of the plant water requirement increased onion yield by 15.12% and 29.39%, respectively, compared to the control treatment without salicylic acid.

Fruit ripening: dynamics and integrated analysis of carotenoids and anthocyanins

BACKGROUND

Fruits are vital food resources as they are loaded with bioactive compounds varying with different stages of ripening. As the fruit ripens, a dynamic color change is observed from green to yellow to red due to the biosynthesis of pigments like chlorophyll, carotenoids, and anthocyanins. Apart from making the fruit attractive and being a visual indicator of the ripening status, pigments add value to a ripened fruit by making them a source of nutraceuticals and industrial products. As the fruit matures, it undergoes biochemical changes which alter the pigment composition of fruits.

RESULTS

The synthesis, degradation and retention pathways of fruit pigments are mediated by hormonal, genetic, and environmental factors. Manipulation of the underlying regulatory mechanisms during fruit ripening suggests ways to enhance the desired pigments in fruits by biotechnological interventions. Here we report, in-depth insight into the dynamics of a pigment change in ripening and the regulatory mechanisms in action.

CONCLUSIONS

This review emphasizes the role of pigments as an asset to a ripened fruit as they augment the nutritive value, antioxidant levels and the net carbon gain of fruits; pigments are a source for fruit biofortification have tremendous industrial value along with being a tool to predict the harvest. This report will be of great utility to the harvesters, traders, consumers, and natural product divisions to extract the leading nutraceutical and industrial potential of preferred pigments biosynthesized at different fruit ripening stages.

Strategies to meet the global demand for natural food colorant bixin: A multidisciplinary approach

Bixin is an apocarotenoid derived from Bixa orellana L. well known as a food colorant along with its numerous industrial and therapeutic applications. With the current surge in usage of natural products, bixin has contributed immensely to the world carotenoid market and showcases a spike in its requirement globally. To bridge the gap between bixin availability and utility, owed to its bioactivity and demand as a colouring agent in industries the sustainable production of bixin is critical. Therefore, to meet up this challenge effective use of multidisciplinary strategies is a promising choice to enhance bixin quantity and quality. Here we report, an optimal blend of approaches directed towards manipulation of bixin biosynthesis pathway with an insight into the impact of regulatory mechanisms and environmental dynamics, engineering carotenoid degradation in plants other than annatto, usage of tissue culture techniques supported with diverse elicitations, molecular breeding, application of in silico predictive tools, screening of microbial bio-factories as alternatives, preservation of bixin bioavailability, and promotion of eco-friendly extraction techniques to play a collaborative role in promoting sustainable bixin production.

Effect of UV radiation and altitude characteristics on the functional traits and leaf optical properties in Saxifraga hostii at the alpine and montane sites in the Slovenian Alps

UV radiation affects the biochemical, physiological and morphological responses of plants. The effect is most pronounced at high altitude, such as alpine regions, and low latitude environments. The effect of UV radiation is impacted by different environmental conditions including temperature. We examined the response of the alpine plant Saxifraga hostii Tausch subsp. hostii growing at two altitudes (montane, 1100 m a.s.l. and alpine, 1500 m a.s.l.) in the Slovenian Alps. Selected ecophysiological, anatomical and pigment analyses along with measurements of the leaf optical properties were carried out during the growing season from July to September. Plants were grown under two different UV levels, near-ambient UV (UV) and reduced UV (UV-) radiation, and temperature conditions were monitored at both altitudes. Saxifraga hostii exhibited high photochemical efficiency of photosystem II and stomatal conductance under near-ambient UV radiation in August, which indicates that it is a well-acclimated plant. In September, photochemical efficiency was higher under reduced UV at the alpine altitude which together with a lower photosynthetic pigment content indicate delayed senescence for plants growing under reduced UV. Most leaf tissue thicknesses were not affected by UV radiation and altitude difference. There was a trend of increased stomatal density and reduced stomatal length on both leaf surfaces under near-ambient UV in August. However, there was no effect of UV attenuation or location at the alpine or montane site on the content of UV-B absorbing compounds, which implies the plant's tolerance of UV-B radiation. Saxifraga hostii leaves showed high absorption in the UV spectrum at higher altitudes, as shown by their optical properties. This study shows that Saxifraga hostii is well-acclimated to ambient UV radiation and to the environmental conditions at both altitudes. The effect of UV radiation is impacted by site conditions and this produces diverse plant responses, which contribute to the specific functional traits of Saxifraga hostii in the high-altitude environment.

Implication of salt stress induces changes in pigment production, antioxidant enzyme activity, and qRT-PCR expression of genes involved in the biosynthetic pathway of Bixa orellana L

The effect of salt stress on pigment synthesis and antioxidant enzyme activity as well as in the genes involved in the biosynthetic pathway of bixin was studied. The 14-day germinated seedlings of Bixa orellana were induced into the various NaCl concentration (0, 25, 50, 75, 100 mM). After 45 days, leaves were taken for pigment analysis, antioxidant assays, and gene expression analysis to study the response of salt stress. The pigment content such as chlorophyll level was increased upon salt stress with a reduction in total carotenoid clearly indicating the adaptability of plants towards the stressed state. The level of β-carotene was increased in the highest concentration of salt stress treatment. The secondary metabolites such as bixin and abscisic acid (ABA) content were also high in elevated concentration of salt-treated seedling than control. The antioxidant enzyme activity was increased with the highest dose of salt stress suggesting the antioxidant enzymes to protect the plant from the deleterious effects. The mRNA transcript gene of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway such as phytoene synthase (PSY), 1-deoxyxylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXS), phytoene desaturase (PDS), beta-lycopene cyclase (LCY-β), epsilon lycopene cyclase (LCY-ε), carboxyl methyl transferase (CMT), aldehyde dehydrogenase (ADH), lycopene cleavage dioxygenase (LCD), and carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase (CCD) showed differential expression pattern under salt stress. In addendum, we studied the co-expression network analysis of gene to assess the co-related genes associated in the biosynthesis pathway of carotenoid. From the co-expression analysis result showed, the LCY, PDS, and PSY genes were closely correlated with other genes. These finding may provide insight to the plants to exist in the stress condition and to improve the industrially important pigment production.