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Gabriel ÁM, Galué-Parra A, Pereira WLA, Pedersen KW, da Silva EO. Leishmania 360°: Guidelines for Exosomal Research. Microorganisms 2021; 9:2081. [PMID: 34683402 PMCID: PMC8537887 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9102081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania parasites are a group of kinetoplastid pathogens that cause a variety of clinical disorders while maintaining cell communication by secreting extracellular vesicles. Emerging technologies have been adapted for the study of Leishmania-host cell interactions, to enable the broad-scale analysis of the extracellular vesicles of this parasite. Leishmania extracellular vesicles (LEVs) are spheroidal nanoparticles of polydispersed suspensions surrounded by a layer of lipid membrane. Although LEVs have attracted increasing attention from researchers, many aspects of their biology remain unclear, including their bioavailability and function in the complex molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis. Given the importance of LEVs in the parasite-host interaction, and in the parasite-parasite relationships that have emerged during the evolutionary history of these organisms, the present review provides an overview of the available data on Leishmania, and formulates guidelines for LEV research. We conclude by reporting direct methods for the isolation of specific LEVs from the culture supernatant of the promastigotes and amastigotes that are suitable for a range of different downstream applications, which increases the compatibility and reproducibility of the approach for the establishment of optimal and comparable isolation conditions and the complete characterization of the LEV, as well as the critical immunomodulatory events triggered by this important group of parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Áurea Martins Gabriel
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine, GHTM, Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine of NOVA University of Lisbon, IHMT-UNL, 1349-008 Lisbon, Portugal
- Laboratory of Structural Biology of Institute of Biological Sciences of Federal University of Pará, Av. Augusto Correa 01, Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil; (A.G.-P.); (E.O.d.S.)
| | - Adan Galué-Parra
- Laboratory of Structural Biology of Institute of Biological Sciences of Federal University of Pará, Av. Augusto Correa 01, Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil; (A.G.-P.); (E.O.d.S.)
| | | | | | - Edilene Oliveira da Silva
- Laboratory of Structural Biology of Institute of Biological Sciences of Federal University of Pará, Av. Augusto Correa 01, Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil; (A.G.-P.); (E.O.d.S.)
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Structural Biology and Bioimaging, UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil
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Bar Routaray C, Bhor R, Bai S, Kadam NS, Jagtap S, Doshi PJ, Sundar S, Sawant S, Kulkarni MJ, Pai K. SWATH-MS based quantitative proteomics analysis to evaluate the antileishmanial effect of Commiphora wightii- Guggul and Amphotericin B on a clinical isolate of Leishmania donovani. J Proteomics 2020; 223:103800. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2020.103800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Beneke T, Demay F, Hookway E, Ashman N, Jeffery H, Smith J, Valli J, Becvar T, Myskova J, Lestinova T, Shafiq S, Sadlova J, Volf P, Wheeler RJ, Gluenz E. Genetic dissection of a Leishmania flagellar proteome demonstrates requirement for directional motility in sand fly infections. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007828. [PMID: 31242261 PMCID: PMC6615630 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Leishmania possesses a single flagellum, which is remodelled during the parasite’s life cycle from a long motile flagellum in promastigote forms in the sand fly to a short immotile flagellum in amastigotes residing in mammalian phagocytes. This study examined the protein composition and in vivo function of the promastigote flagellum. Protein mass spectrometry and label free protein enrichment testing of isolated flagella and deflagellated cell bodies defined a flagellar proteome for L. mexicana promastigote forms (available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD011057). This information was used to generate a CRISPR-Cas9 knockout library of 100 mutants to screen for flagellar defects. This first large-scale knockout screen in a Leishmania sp. identified 56 mutants with altered swimming speed (52 reduced and 4 increased) and defined distinct mutant categories (faster swimmers, slower swimmers, slow uncoordinated swimmers and paralysed cells, including aflagellate promastigotes and cells with curled flagella and disruptions of the paraflagellar rod). Each mutant was tagged with a unique 17-nt barcode, providing a simple barcode sequencing (bar-seq) method for measuring the relative fitness of L. mexicana mutants in vivo. In mixed infections of the permissive sand fly vector Lutzomyia longipalpis, paralysed promastigotes and uncoordinated swimmers were severely diminished in the fly after defecation of the bloodmeal. Subsequent examination of flies infected with a single paralysed mutant lacking the central pair protein PF16 or an uncoordinated swimmer lacking the axonemal protein MBO2 showed that these promastigotes did not reach anterior regions of the fly alimentary tract. These data show that L. mexicana need directional motility for successful colonisation of sand flies. Leishmania are protozoan parasites, transmitted between mammals by the bite of phlebotomine sand flies. Promastigote forms in the sand fly have a long flagellum, which is motile and used for anchoring the parasites to prevent clearance with the digested blood meal remnants. To dissect flagellar functions and their importance in life cycle progression, we generated here a comprehensive list of >300 flagellar proteins and produced a CRISPR-Cas9 gene knockout library of 100 mutant Leishmania. We studied their behaviour in vitro before examining their fate in the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis. Measuring mutant swimming speeds showed that about half behaved differently compared to the wild type: a few swam faster, many slower and some were completely paralysed. We also found a group of uncoordinated swimmers. To test whether flagellar motility is required for parasite migration from the fly midgut to the foregut from where they reach the next host, we infected sand flies with a mixed mutant population. Each mutant carried a unique tag and tracking these tags up to nine days after infection showed that paralysed and uncoordinated Leishmania were rapidly lost from flies. These data indicate that directional swimming is important for successful colonisation of sand flies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Beneke
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - François Demay
- University of Lille 1, Cité Scientifique, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France
| | - Edward Hookway
- Research Department of Pathology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nicole Ashman
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Heather Jeffery
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - James Smith
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Jessica Valli
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Tomas Becvar
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jitka Myskova
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tereza Lestinova
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Shahaan Shafiq
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Jovana Sadlova
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Volf
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Richard John Wheeler
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Eva Gluenz
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Sunter JD, Moreira-Leite F, Gull K. Dependency relationships between IFT-dependent flagellum elongation and cell morphogenesis in Leishmania. Open Biol 2018; 8:rsob.180124. [PMID: 30463910 PMCID: PMC6282073 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.180124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Flagella have multiple functions that are associated with different axonemal structures. Motile flagella typically have a 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules, whereas sensory flagella normally have a 9 + 0 arrangement. Leishmania exhibits both of these flagellum forms and differentiation between these two flagellum forms is associated with cytoskeletal and cell shape changes. We disrupted flagellum elongation in Leishmania by deleting the intraflagellar transport (IFT) protein IFT140 and examined the effects on cell morphogenesis. Δift140 cells have no external flagellum, having only a very short flagellum within the flagellar pocket. This short flagellum had a collapsed 9 + 0 (9v) axoneme configuration reminiscent of that in the amastigote and was not attached to the pocket membrane. Although amastigote-like changes occurred in the flagellar cytoskeleton, the cytoskeletal structures of Δift140 cells retained their promastigote configurations, as examined by fluorescence microscopy of tagged proteins and serial electron tomography. Thus, Leishmania promastigote cell morphogenesis does not depend on the formation of a long flagellum attached at the neck. Furthermore, our data show that disruption of the IFT system is sufficient to produce a switch from the 9 + 2 to the collapsed 9 + 0 (9v) axonemal structure, echoing the process that occurs during the promastigote to amastigote differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack Daniel Sunter
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Flavia Moreira-Leite
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Keith Gull
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
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Laranjeira-Silva MF, Wang W, Samuel TK, Maeda FY, Michailowsky V, Hamza I, Liu Z, Andrews NW. A MFS-like plasma membrane transporter required for Leishmania virulence protects the parasites from iron toxicity. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007140. [PMID: 29906288 PMCID: PMC6021107 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron is essential for many cellular processes, but can generate highly toxic hydroxyl radicals in the presence of oxygen. Therefore, intracellular iron accumulation must be tightly regulated, by balancing uptake with storage or export. Iron uptake in Leishmania is mediated by the coordinated action of two plasma membrane proteins, the ferric iron reductase LFR1 and the ferrous iron transporter LIT1. However, how these parasites regulate their cytosolic iron concentration to prevent toxicity remains unknown. Here we characterize Leishmania Iron Regulator 1 (LIR1), an iron responsive protein with similarity to membrane transporters of the major facilitator superfamily (MFS) and plant nodulin-like proteins. LIR1 localizes on the plasma membrane of L. amazonensis promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes. After heterologous expression in Arabidopsis thaliana, LIR1 decreases the iron content of leaves and worsens the chlorotic phenotype of plants lacking the iron importer IRT1. Consistent with a role in iron efflux, LIR1 deficiency does not affect iron uptake by L. amazonensis but significantly increases the amount of iron retained intracellularly in the parasites. LIR1 null parasites are more sensitive to iron toxicity and have drastically impaired infectivity, phenotypes that are reversed by LIR1 complementation. We conclude that LIR1 functions as a plasma membrane iron exporter with a critical role in maintaining iron homeostasis and promoting infectivity in L. amazonensis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wanpeng Wang
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Tamika K. Samuel
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Fernando Y. Maeda
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Vladimir Michailowsky
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- Faculdade de Medicina, Setor Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Iqbal Hamza
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Zhongchi Liu
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Norma W. Andrews
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
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Sunter J, Gull K. Shape, form, function and Leishmania pathogenicity: from textbook descriptions to biological understanding. Open Biol 2018; 7:rsob.170165. [PMID: 28903998 PMCID: PMC5627057 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.170165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The shape and form of protozoan parasites are inextricably linked to their pathogenicity. The evolutionary pressure associated with establishing and maintaining an infection and transmission to vector or host has shaped parasite morphology. However, there is not a 'one size fits all' morphological solution to these different pressures, and parasites exhibit a range of different morphologies, reflecting the diversity of their complex life cycles. In this review, we will focus on the shape and form of Leishmania spp., a group of very successful protozoan parasites that cause a range of diseases from self-healing cutaneous leishmaniasis to visceral leishmaniasis, which is fatal if left untreated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack Sunter
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Headington Campus, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Keith Gull
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
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In Vitro and In Vivo Activities of 2,3-Diarylsubstituted Quinoxaline Derivatives against Leishmania amazonensis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2016; 60:3433-44. [PMID: 27001812 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02582-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is endemic in 98 countries and territories worldwide. The therapies available for leishmaniasis have serious side effects, thus prompting the search for new therapies. The present study investigated the antileishmanial activities of 2,3-diarylsubstituted quinoxaline derivatives against Leishmania amazonensis The antiproliferative activities of 6,7-dichloro-2,3-diphenylquinoxaline (LSPN329) and 2,3-di-(4-methoxyphenyl)-quinoxaline (LSPN331) against promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes were assessed, and the cytotoxicities of LSPN329 and LSPN331 were determined. Morphological and ultrastructural alterations were examined by electron microscopy, and biochemical alterations, reflected by the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), mitochondrial superoxide anion (O2·(-)) concentration, the intracellular ATP concentration, cell volume, the level of phosphatidylserine exposure on the cell membrane, cell membrane integrity, and lipid inclusions, were evaluated. In vivo antileishmanial activity was evaluated in a murine cutaneous leishmaniasis model. Compounds LSPN329 and LSPN331 showed significant selectivity for promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes and low cytotoxicity. In promastigotes, ultrastructural alterations were observed, including an increase in lipid inclusions, concentric membranes, and intense mitochondrial swelling, which were associated with hyperpolarization of ΔΨm, an increase in the O2·(-) concentration, decreased intracellular ATP levels, and a decrease in cell volume. Phosphatidylserine exposure and DNA fragmentation were not observed. The cellular membrane remained intact after treatment. Thus, the multifactorial response that was responsible for the cellular collapse of promastigotes was based on intense mitochondrial alterations. BALB/c mice treated with LSPN329 or LSPN331 showed a significant decrease in lesion thickness in the infected footpad. Therefore, the antileishmanial activity and mitochondrial mechanism of action of LSPN329 and LSPN331 and the decrease in lesion thickness in vivo brought about by LSPN329 and LSPN331 make them potential candidates for new drug development for the treatment of leishmaniasis.
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Wheeler RJ, Sunter JD, Gull K. Flagellar pocket restructuring through the Leishmania life cycle involves a discrete flagellum attachment zone. J Cell Sci 2016; 129:854-67. [PMID: 26746239 PMCID: PMC4760377 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.183152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 12/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmania promastigote parasites have a flagellum, which protrudes from the flagellar pocket at the cell anterior, yet, surprisingly, have homologs of many flagellum attachment zone (FAZ) proteins – proteins used in the related Trypanosoma species to laterally attach the flagellum to the cell body from the flagellar pocket to the cell posterior. Here, we use seven Leishmania mexicana cell lines that expressed eYFP fusions of FAZ protein homologs to show that the Leishmania flagellar pocket includes a FAZ structure. Electron tomography revealed a precisely defined 3D organisation for both the flagellar pocket and FAZ, with striking similarities to those of Trypanosoma brucei. Expression of two T. brucei FAZ proteins in L. mexicana showed that T. brucei FAZ proteins can assemble into the Leishmania FAZ structure. Leishmania therefore have a previously unrecognised FAZ structure, which we show undergoes major structural reorganisation in the transition from the promastigote (sandfly vector) to amastigote (in mammalian macrophages). Morphogenesis of the Leishmania flagellar pocket, a structure important for pathogenicity, is therefore intimately associated with a FAZ; a finding with implications for understanding shape changes involving component modules during evolution. Summary:Leishmania parasites have a highly structured flagellar pocket, including a structure homologous to the Trypanosoma brucei flagellum attachment zone, which undergoes structural adaptations in different life cycle stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Wheeler
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraße 108, Dresden 01307, Germany Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Jack D Sunter
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Keith Gull
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
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Gluenz E, Wheeler RJ, Hughes L, Vaughan S. Scanning and three-dimensional electron microscopy methods for the study of Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania mexicana flagella. Methods Cell Biol 2015; 127:509-42. [PMID: 25837406 PMCID: PMC4419368 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2014.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional electron microscopy tools have revolutionized our understanding of cell structure and molecular complexes in biology. Here, we describe methods for studying flagellar ultrastructure and biogenesis in two unicellular parasites-Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania mexicana. We describe methods for the preparation of these parasites for scanning electron microscopy cellular electron tomography, and serial block face scanning electron microscopy (SBFSEM). These parasites have a highly ordered cell shape and form, with a defined positioning of internal cytoskeletal structures and organelles. We show how knowledge of these can be used to dissect cell cycles in both parasites and identify the old flagellum from the new in T. brucei. Finally, we demonstrate the use of SBFSEM three-dimensional models for analysis of individual whole cells, demonstrating the excellent potential this technique has for future studies of mutant cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Gluenz
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Louise Hughes
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
| | - Sue Vaughan
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
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