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Beggs MR, Young K, Plain A, O'Neill DD, Raza A, Flockerzi V, Dimke H, Alexander RT. Maternal Epidermal Growth Factor Promotes Neonatal Claudin-2 Dependent Increases in Small Intestinal Calcium Permeability. FUNCTION 2023; 4:zqad033. [PMID: 37575484 PMCID: PMC10413934 DOI: 10.1093/function/zqad033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
A higher concentration of calcium in breast milk than blood favors paracellular calcium absorption enabling growth during postnatal development. We aimed to determine whether suckling animals have greater intestinal calcium permeability to maximize absorption and to identify the underlying molecular mechanism. We examined intestinal claudin expression at different ages in mice and in human intestinal epithelial (Caco-2) cells in response to hormones or human milk. We also measured intestinal calcium permeability in wildtype, Cldn2 and Cldn12 KO mice and Caco-2 cells in response to hormones or human milk. Bone mineralization in mice was assessed by μCT. Calcium permeability across the jejunum and ileum of mice were 2-fold greater at 2 wk than 2 mo postnatal age. At 2 wk, Cldn2 and Cldn12 expression were greater, but only Cldn2 KO mice had decreased calcium permeability compared to wildtype. This translated to decreased bone volume, cross-sectional thickness, and tissue mineral density of femurs. Weaning from breast milk led to a 50% decrease in Cldn2 expression in the jejunum and ileum. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) in breast milk specifically increased only CLDN2 expression and calcium permeability in Caco-2 cells. These data support intestinal permeability to calcium, conferred by claudin-2, being greater in suckling mice and being driven by EGF in breast milk. Loss of the CLDN2 pathway leads to suboptimal bone mineralization at 2 wk of life. Overall, EGF-mediated control of intestinal claudin-2 expression contributes to maximal intestinal calcium absorption in suckling animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan R Beggs
- Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada
- The Women's & Children's Health Research Institute, Edmonton, AB T6G 1C9, Canada
| | - Kennedi Young
- Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Allen Plain
- Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Debbie D O'Neill
- Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Ahsan Raza
- Experimentelle und Klinische Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Veit Flockerzi
- Experimentelle und Klinische Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Henrik Dimke
- Department of Cardiovascular and Renal Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense C DK-5000, Demark
- Department of Nephrology, Odense University Hospital, 5000 Odense C, Denmark
| | - R Todd Alexander
- Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada
- The Women's & Children's Health Research Institute, Edmonton, AB T6G 1C9, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1C9, Canada
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2
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Vitamin D-Mediated Regulation of Intestinal Calcium Absorption. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14163351. [PMID: 36014856 PMCID: PMC9416674 DOI: 10.3390/nu14163351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin D is a critical regulator of calcium and bone homeostasis. While vitamin D has multiple effects on bone and calcium metabolism, the regulation of intestinal calcium (Ca) absorption efficiency is a critical function for vitamin D. This is necessary for optimal bone mineralization during growth, the protection of bone in adults, and the prevention of osteoporosis. Intestinal Ca absorption is regulated by 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)2 D), a hormone that activates gene transcription following binding to the intestinal vitamin D receptor (VDR). When dietary Ca intake is low, Ca absorption follows a vitamin-D-regulated, saturable pathway, but when dietary Ca intake is high, Ca absorption is predominately through a paracellular diffusion pathway. Deletion of genes that mediate vitamin D action (i.e., VDR) or production (CYP27B1) eliminates basal Ca absorption and prevents the adaptation of mice to low-Ca diets. Various physiologic or disease states modify vitamin-D-regulated intestinal absorption of Ca (enhanced during late pregnancy, reduced due to menopause and aging).
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Aita R, Aldea D, Hassan S, Hur J, Pellon-Cardenas O, Cohen E, Chen L, Shroyer N, Christakos S, Verzi MP, Fleet JC. Genomic analysis of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3 action in mouse intestine reveals compartment and segment-specific gene regulatory effects. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102213. [PMID: 35779631 PMCID: PMC9358460 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (VD) regulates intestinal calcium absorption in the small intestine (SI) and also reduces risk of colonic inflammation and cancer. However, the intestine compartment-specific target genes of VD signaling are unknown. Here, we examined VD action across three functional compartments of the intestine using RNA-seq to measure VD-induced changes in gene expression and Chromatin Immunoprecipitation with next generation sequencing to measure vitamin D receptor (VDR) genomic binding. We found that VD regulated the expression of 55 shared transcripts in the SI crypt, SI villi, and in the colon, including Cyp24a1, S100g, Trpv6, and Slc30a10. Other VD-regulated transcripts were unique to the SI crypt (162 up, 210 down), villi (199 up, 63 down), or colon (102 up, 28 down), but this did not correlate with mRNA levels of the VDR. Furthermore, bioinformatic analysis identified unique VD-regulated biological functions in each compartment. VDR-binding sites were found in 70% of upregulated genes from the colon and SI villi but were less common in upregulated genes from the SI crypt and among downregulated genes, suggesting some transcript-level VD effects are likely indirect. Consistent with this, we show that VD regulated the expression of other transcription factors and their downstream targets. Finally, we demonstrate that compartment-specific VD-mediated gene expression was associated with compartment-specific VDR-binding sites (<30% of targets) and enrichment of intestinal transcription factor-binding motifs within VDR-binding peaks. Taken together, our data reveal unique spatial patterns of VD action in the intestine and suggest novel mechanisms that could account for compartment-specific functions of this hormone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Aita
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Dennis Aldea
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Sohaib Hassan
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Joseph Hur
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Oscar Pellon-Cardenas
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Evan Cohen
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Lei Chen
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Noah Shroyer
- Department of Medicine, Section of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Sylvia Christakos
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry, and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA.
| | - Michael P Verzi
- Department of Genetics, Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Health, EOHSI, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA.
| | - James C Fleet
- Department of Nutritional Science, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, USA.
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Beggs MR, Bhullar H, Dimke H, Alexander RT. The contribution of regulated colonic calcium absorption to the maintenance of calcium homeostasis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2022; 220:106098. [PMID: 35339651 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2022.106098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 03/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Calcium absorption and secretion can occur along the length of the small and large intestine. To date, the focus of research into intestinal calcium absorption has been the small intestine, the site contributing the majority of intestinal calcium absorption. However, evidence that the colon contributes as much as 10% of enteral calcium transport has been available for decades. Transcellular calcium absorption and bidirectional paracellular calcium flux contributing to either net absorption or secretion have been observed in the colon, depending on the physiological state. Moreover, the calcium transport pathways contributing to colonic absorption or secretion are regulated by a variety of hormones, including calcitriol, plasma calcium and dietary factors, including prebiotics. Herein we review historical and recent research highlighting the role of colonic calcium transport in overall maintenance of calcium balance, and suggest these data are consistent with the colon being a site of significant regulated transepithelial calcium transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan R Beggs
- Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Canada; Women's and Children's Health Institute, Alberta, Canada
| | | | - Henrik Dimke
- Department of Cardiovascular and Renal Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Demark; Department of Nephrology, Odense University Hospital, Denmark
| | - R Todd Alexander
- Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Canada; Women's and Children's Health Institute, Alberta, Canada; Department of Paediatrics, University of Alberta, Canada.
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Balthazar CF, Guimarães JF, Coutinho NM, Pimentel TC, Ranadheera CS, Santillo A, Albenzio M, Cruz AG, Sant'Ana AS. The future of functional food: Emerging technologies application on prebiotics, probiotics and postbiotics. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2022; 21:2560-2586. [PMID: 35470949 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This review was the first to gather literature about the effect of emerging technologies on probiotic, prebiotic, and postbiotic products. Applying emerging technologies to probiotic products can increase probiotic survival and improve probiotic properties (cholesterol attachment, adhesion to Caco-2 cells, increase angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities, and decrease systolic blood pressure). Furthermore, it can optimize the fermentation process, produce or maintain compounds of interest (bacteriocin, oligosaccharides, peptides, phenolic compounds, flavonoids), improve bioactivity (vitamin, aglycones, calcium), and sensory characteristics. Applying emerging technologies to prebiotic products did not result in prebiotic degradation. Still, it contributed to higher concentrations of bioactive compounds (citric and ascorbic acids, anthocyanin, polyphenols, flavonoids) and health properties (antioxidant activity and inhibition of ACE, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase). Emerging technologies may also be applied to obtain postbiotics with increased health effects. In this way, current studies suggest that emerging food processing technologies enhance the efficiency of probiotics and prebiotics in food. The information provided may help food industries to choose a more suitable technology to process their products and provide a basis for the most used process parameters. Furthermore, the current gaps are discussed. Emerging technologies may be used to process food products resulting in increased probiotic functionality, prebiotic stability, and higher concentrations of bioactive compounds. In addition, they can be used to obtain postbiotic products with improved health effects compared to the conventional heat treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celso F Balthazar
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jonas F Guimarães
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Veterinary, Federal Fluminense University, Rio de Janeiro, Niteroi, Brazil
| | - Nathália M Coutinho
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Veterinary, Federal Fluminense University, Rio de Janeiro, Niteroi, Brazil
| | - Tatiana C Pimentel
- Federal Institute of Paraná, Campus Paranavaí, Paranavaí, Paraná, Brazil
| | - C Senaka Ranadheera
- School of Agriculture & Food, Faculty of Veterinary & Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Antonella Santillo
- Department of the Science of Agriculture, Food and Environment (SAFE), University of Foggia (UNIFG), Foggia, Italy
| | - Marzia Albenzio
- Department of the Science of Agriculture, Food and Environment (SAFE), University of Foggia (UNIFG), Foggia, Italy
| | - Adriano G Cruz
- Department of Food, Federal Institute of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Anderson S Sant'Ana
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
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6
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Claudin-2 and claudin-12 form independent, complementary pores required to maintain calcium homeostasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2111247118. [PMID: 34810264 PMCID: PMC8694054 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2111247118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis is maintained through coordination between intestinal absorption, renal reabsorption, and bone remodeling. Intestinal and renal (re)absorption occurs via transcellular and paracellular pathways. The latter contributes the bulk of (re)absorption under conditions of adequate intake. Epithelial paracellular permeability is conferred by tight-junction proteins called claudins. However, the molecular identity of the paracellular Ca2+ pore remains to be delineated. Claudins (Cldn)-2 and -12 confer Ca2+ permeability, but deletion of either claudin does not result in a negative Ca2+ balance or increased calciotropic hormone levels, suggesting the existence of additional transport pathways or parallel roles for the two claudins. To test this, we generated a Cldn2/12 double knockout mouse (DKO). These animals have reduced intestinal Ca2+ absorption. Colonic Ca2+ permeability is also reduced in DKO mice and significantly lower than single-null animals, while small intestine Ca2+ permeability is unaltered. The DKO mice display significantly greater urinary Ca2+ wasting than Cldn2 null animals. These perturbations lead to hypocalcemia and reduced bone mineral density, which was not observed in single-KO animals. Both claudins were localized to colonic epithelial crypts and renal proximal tubule cells, but they do not physically interact in vitro. Overexpression of either claudin increased Ca2+ permeability in cell models with endogenous expression of the other claudin. We find claudin-2 and claudin-12 form partially redundant, independent Ca2+ permeable pores in renal and colonic epithelia that enable paracellular Ca2+ (re)absorption in these segments, with either one sufficient to maintain Ca2+ balance.
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7
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Li S, De La Cruz J, Hutchens S, Mukhopadhyay S, Criss ZK, Aita R, Pellon-Cardenas O, Hur J, Soteropoulos P, Husain S, Dhawan P, Verlinden L, Carmeliet G, Fleet JC, Shroyer NF, Verzi MP, Christakos S. Analysis of 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D 3 Genomic Action Reveals Calcium-Regulating and Calcium-Independent Effects in Mouse Intestine and Human Enteroids. Mol Cell Biol 2020; 41:e00372-20. [PMID: 33139494 PMCID: PMC7849401 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00372-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Although vitamin D is critical for the function of the intestine, most studies have focused on the duodenum. We show that transgenic expression of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) only in the distal intestine of VDR null mice (KO/TG mice) results in the normalization of serum calcium and rescue of rickets. Although it had been suggested that calcium transport in the distal intestine involves a paracellular process, we found that the 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25(OH)2D3]-activated genes in the proximal intestine associated with active calcium transport (Trpv6, S100g, and Atp2b1) are also induced by 1,25(OH)2D3 in the distal intestine of KO/TG mice. In addition, Slc30a10, encoding a manganese efflux transporter, was one of the genes most induced by 1,25(OH)2D3 in both proximal and distal intestine. Both villus and crypt were found to express Vdr and VDR target genes. RNA sequence (RNA-seq) analysis of human enteroids indicated that the effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 observed in mice are conserved in humans. Using Slc30a10-/- mice, a loss of cortical bone and a marked decrease in S100g and Trpv6 in the intestine was observed. Our findings suggest an interrelationship between vitamin D and intestinal Mn efflux and indicate the importance of distal intestinal segments to vitamin D action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Li
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Jessica De La Cruz
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Steven Hutchens
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology and Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA
| | - Somshuvra Mukhopadhyay
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology and Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA
| | - Zachary K Criss
- Integrative Molecular and Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, Division of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Rohit Aita
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | | | - Joseph Hur
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Patricia Soteropoulos
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
- Genomics Center, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Seema Husain
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
- Genomics Center, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Puneet Dhawan
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
- Genomics Center, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Lieve Verlinden
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Geert Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, Leuven, Belgium
| | - James C Fleet
- Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Noah F Shroyer
- Integrative Molecular and Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, Division of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Michael P Verzi
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Sylvia Christakos
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
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8
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Reynolds CJ, Koszewski NJ, Horst RL, Beitz DC, Goff JP. Role of glucuronidated 25-hydroxyvitamin D on colon gene expression in mice. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2020; 319:G253-G260. [PMID: 32628073 PMCID: PMC7500262 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00355.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
25-Hydroxyvitamin D3-3β-glucuronic acid (25OHD-Gluc) is produced in the liver and is a constituent of human blood and bile. Bacterial glucuronidases (GUS) in mammalian digestive microbiota cleave glucuronide conjugates, such as 25OHD-Gluc, and release the free aglycone (i.e., 25OHD) inside the intestinal lumen. We hypothesized that 25OHD-Gluc would elicit a VDR-dependent mRNA response in the colon after cleavage by gut microbiota. The activity of 25OHD-Gluc was investigated by measuring expression of cytochrome P450 24A1 (Cyp24) mRNA both in vitro and in vivo. In cell culture, Caco2 cells responded to 25OHD-Gluc, whereas HT29 cells did not. When coincubated with GUS, both cell lines elicited a robust response as indicated by a 5 Ct (32-fold) increase in Cyp24 mRNA. In vitamin D-sufficient mice, we found that both oral and subcutaneous administration of 1 nmol 25OHD-Gluc induced expression of Cyp24 mRNA in the colon whereas 25OHD did not. In contrast, 25OHD, but not 25OHD-Gluc, was active in the duodenum. When the jejunum was surgically ligated to block flow of digesta to the colon, neither oral nor subcutaneous administration of 2 nmol 25OHD-Gluc was able to induce expression of Cyp24 in the colon. Our findings suggest that 25OHD-Gluc, a vitamin D metabolite found in bile, induces VDR-mediated responses in the colon by crossing the apical membrane of the colon epithelium.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We found that 25OHD-Gluc, an endogenously produced metabolite, is delivered to the colon via bile to induce vitamin D-mediated responses in the colon.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Donald C. Beitz
- 1Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
| | - Jesse P. Goff
- 2Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
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