Leader individual differences, situational parameters, and leadership outcomes: A comprehensive review and integration

A model of command, leadership and management competency as a predictor of the performance, potential and rate of advancement of Royal Navy senior officers

The CLM "supra-competencies" of 481 senior RN officers were measured by relevant personality and motivation scales and compared with their formal organizational appraisal and promotion data. Results suggest the CLM Competency Model is reliable, valid and adds important insight into the appraised Performance and Potential along with previous Rate of Advancement (ROA) of senior RN Officers. This study demonstrates the potential for criterion-anchored and validated competencies, such as the CLM Model, to add insight to organizational selection and development. Results could be cautiously applied to other militaries but need to be replicated with civilian directors and senior executives to demonstrate equal value outside the services. This is a rare example of a study into a large population of very senior leaders, validated against both formal appraisal data and actual rates of advancement.

Pathological Personality Traits and Self-Reported Managerial Leadership: A Comparison of the Dirty Dozen and Five-Factor Model Antagonistic Triad Measure

This study (N = 427) examined the predictive and incremental validity of two Dark Triad (DT) measures-the Dirty Dozen (DD) and the Five-Factor Model Antagonistic Triad Measure (FFM ATM)-in relation to self-reported managerial leadership. Prior research shows that unidimensional DT measures like the DD may obscure nuanced trait-outcome relations. In contrast, the FFM ATM disaggregates DT traits into both core personality components (Antagonism, Emotional Stability, Impulsivity, Agency) and traditional DT subscales (e.g., Psychopathy comprises Antagonism, Emotional Stability, and Impulsivity). Results showed that the FFM ATM provided significantly stronger prediction and incremental validity across leadership dimensions. Both its empirically derived core factors and multidimensional DT subscales explained nearly all variance in leadership outcomes and consistently outperformed the DD in predictive accuracy. These findings highlight the value of capturing the multidimensional structure of DT traits when examining their distinct and overlapping relations with leadership. The results support the use of theoretically grounded, empirically robust instruments like the FFM ATM over brief omnibus measures to provide a more precise understanding of how individual differences in DT traits relate to managerial leaderships.

Self-distancing is positively related to higher scores during U.S. Army (USA) Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) advanced leadership training

The extent to which self-regulatory tendencies predict military leadership ability is unknown. In the present study, we assessed the relationship between these tendencies and military leadership competency. During a United States Army (USA) Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) Advanced Camp capstone leader development and assessment course, 234 cadets completed a survey measuring five self-regulatory tendencies: self-control, cognitive reappraisal, emotional suppression, grit, and temporal self-distancing. Overall camp performance scores were used to assess and quantify leadership ability. Non-parametric bivariate correlations and regression analyses revealed that only cognitive reappraisal and temporal self-distancing significantly correlated with leadership ability. Notably, temporal self-distancing emerged as the most robust predictor of effective leadership. The present findings suggest that strategies for improving specific self-regulatory tendencies may enhance military leadership effectiveness.

General intelligence, personality traits, and motivation as predictors of performance, potential, and rate of advancement of Royal Navy senior officers

This paper assesses the impact of general intelligence, as well as specific personality traits, and aspects of motivation, on performance, potential, and advancement of senior leaders. A questionnaire survey was conducted on the full population of 381 senior officers in the Royal Navy with an 80% response rate. Performance, potential, and rate of advancement were established direct from the organization's appraisal system; intelligence, personality traits and motivation were assessed, at the time of the study, using the Verify G+ Test, Occupational Personality Questionnaire, and Motivation Questionnaire. Findings suggest differences in motivation are more important than differences in general intelligence, or personality traits, in predicting assessed performance, potential within, and actual rate of advancement to, senior leadership positions. This is a rare example of a study into very senior leaders, validated against both formal appraisal data and actual rates of advancement. As a consequence of this study the Royal Navy has started to use psychometric-based assessments as part of the selection and development of its most Senior Officers.

Differential Behavioral Pathways Linking Personality to Leadership Emergence and Effectiveness in Groups

This study integrates leadership process models with process models of personality and behavioral personality science to examine the behavioral-perceptual pathways that explain interpersonal personality traits' divergent relation to group leadership evaluations. We applied data from an online group interaction study (N = 364) alternately assigning participants as leaders conducting brief tasks. We used four variable types to build the pathways in multiple mediator models: (a) Self-reported personality traits, (b) video recordings of expressed interpersonal behaviors coded by 6 trained raters, (c) interpersonal impressions, and (d) mutual evaluations of leadership emergence/effectiveness. We find interpersonal big five traits to differently relate to the two leadership outcomes via the behavioral-perceptual pathways: Extraversion was more important to leadership emergence due to impressions of assertiveness evoked by task-focused behavior being strongly valued. Agreeableness/emotional stability were more important to leadership effectiveness due to impressions of trustworthiness/calmness evoked by member-focused/calm behavior being stronger valued.

Introverted and yet effective? A faceted approach to the relationship between leadership and extraversion

Introduction

Extraversion and its facets of assertiveness and sociability were identified as stable predictors for leader emergence and effectiveness. However, recent research suggested that extraversion may lie in the eyes of the beholder; it might not be the leader's possession but their followers' attribution of the trait that shapes these criteria of leader success.

Methods

In our study, we reverse-engineered this relationship and assessed the effects of effective leadership behaviors on personality perceptions. More specifically, we created scenarios of a leader responding to coordination challenges with passive-avoidant, transactional, or transformational leadership behaviors. We presented 204 participants with these scenarios and assessed how extraverted, assertive, and sociable they perceived the leader to be.

Results

Interestingly, and not fully meeting our expectations, ascriptions of extraversion and its facets of assertiveness and sociability did not directly relate to the effectiveness of the behaviors, as the moderately effective transactional leadership style garnered the highest ascriptions of extraversion and its facets. Further, ascriptions of extraversion to the transformational behavior of intellectual stimulation were remarkably low, matched only by the laissez-faire dimension of the passive-avoidant leadership style.

Discussion

We integrate and contrast these unexpected but explainable findings with current research, discuss potential associations between introversion and empowering leadership practices and provide suggestions for future discourse, illustrating the potential of investigating the presence of an introverted leadership advantage in the workplace of tomorrow.

Understanding the Leaders of Tomorrow: The Need to Study Leadership in Adolescence

Leadership traits and behaviors are observed early in human development, and although an improved understanding of youth leadership would usefully inform many real-world contexts (e.g., education, parenting, policy), most empirical work on leadership has been limited to adult populations. The purpose of the current article is to add a developmental perspective to leadership research that has so far been absent. Here, we (a) highlight adolescence as a critical developmental period for leadership emergence and development, (b) argue that leadership among youths is poorly understood and critically understudied, (c) provide exemplars of synergy between research on leadership and adolescent development that are ripe for focused inquiry, and (d) underscore some of the positive consequences of accelerating empirical research on leadership in adolescence, including implications for a deeper understanding of leadership in adult working populations.

Leadership styles and transformational leadership skills among nurse leaders in Qatar, a cross-sectional study

AIM

There is a continuing need to implement strategies that create opportunities to develop leadership in Qatar, and to build institutions that can produce effective health managers and leaders. The scarcity of information and studies relating to leadership in this major healthcare corporation must be addressed. This article aims to explore nursing leadership styles and transformational leadership skills among nursing leaders, in Qatar. The study was conducted from October 2020 to January 2021.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional Study.

METHODS

A validated survey was administered to explore the prevalence of leadership styles and transformational leadership skills. Subsequent statistical data analysis achieved the research objectives. The Multi-Factor Leadership Questionnaire (Western Journal of Nursing Research, 1996) was used as an online de-identified validated questionnaire.

RESULTS

Eighty-nine nurses completed the survey. The nurse leaders in this study exhibited leadership traits or qualities that confirm transformational leadership. Some nurse leaders also exhibited transactional and autocratic leadership styles. Directors of nursing exhibit higher levels of transformational leadership style than head nurses, while the latter is more likely to manifest an autocratic leadership style. This study indicates that a development roadmap is needed to transform more nursing leaders into transformational leaders, particularly head nurses, and to universally improve transformational leadership skills among all nursing staff members.

Character-enabled improvisation and the new normal: A paradox perspective

The COVID-19 pandemic has amplified and exacerbated organizational paradoxes felt by individuals largely because of the nostalgia individuals feel for the "old" normal while facing the need to let go in order to create a "new" normal. We position improvisation as a synthesis-type approach to working through the paradoxes of the pandemic. Furthermore, we look at individual differences that underpin the ability to improvise, and identify that it is the strength of character and character-based judgment of the individual that enables the enactment of a focal context, the choice to improvise, and the act of effectively improvising to work through paradoxes. Linking character to improvisation, and, vice versa, improvisation to the development of character, reveals the importance of dimensions such as courage, humility, temperance, transcendence, humanity, and collaboration in the practice of improvisation.

The effect of audit team's emotional intelligence on reduced audit quality behavior in audit firms: Considering the mediating effect of team trust and the moderating effect of knowledge sharing

Reduced audit quality behavior is widespread in the auditor's practice and is an important factor threatening audit quality. Some prior studies have investigated the relationship between auditors' psychological contract violation and reduced audit quality behavior. However, the research of relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and auditors' behavior is still in its infancy despite the fact that the auditing profession would benefit greatly from improving audit team's EI. This study examines whether and why the audit team's EI restrains the audit quality reduction behavior in audit firms. In the study, our hypotheses are tested using a data set collected from 326 respondents in Chinese audit firms. The results are as follows: firstly, audit team's EI is directly negatively related to reduced audit quality behavior. Secondly, EI is indirectly related to reduced audit quality behavior, through team trust. The results of structural equation modeling (SEM) indicate a mediation model where team trust is negatively related to reduced audit quality behavior. Thirdly, knowledge sharing is a significant mechanism that moderates the effects of different types of EI on audit quality reduction behavior. In the audit team with high knowledge sharing, the audit team's EI can refrain the audit quality reduction behavior; In the audit team with low knowledge sharing, the audit team's EI has no significant effect on audit quality reduction behavior. This study expands the factors affecting audit quality to the psychological level of audit teams, enriches the literature on audit team's behavior characteristics, and provides direct evidence for the relationship between audit team's psychological characteristics and audit quality.

Leader extraversion and team performance: A moderated mediation model

Extraversion is the best and most consistent predictor of important leadership outcomes. However, there has been little exploration and examination of the mechanisms underlying the effects of extraverted leadership on performance. Drawing on distal-proximal motivational theory and situational strength theory, the present study proposes and examines a moderated mediation model that explains how leader extraversion affects team performance and how situational characteristics strengthen or constrain this relationship. Respondents were recruited through management team training courses run by the eight Chinese companies. We conducted two rounds of electronic questionnaire collection. The first round of data was collected during the training session. Four weeks later, we collected the data through the training courses' WeChat groups. Data collected from 226 Chinese team leaders was analyzed using SPSS 26 and Mplus 7. We find that leader extraversion predicts team performance through a motivational mechanism operationalized as leader work engagement. We further find that goal clarity and process clarity play an important role in strengthening the positive effect of leader extraversion on leader work engagement as well as the motivational mechanism, providing an empirical explanation of how leader extraversion affects team performance through a motivational mechanism operationalized as leader work engagement. We also explore how two potential situational characteristics, operationalized as goal clarity and process clarity of leaders, affect the relationship between leader extraversion and leader work engagement as well as the motivational mechanism. Addionally, the findings suggest important practical implications for the organizations seeking to identify effective team leaders.

Applying Situational Leadership to Redeployment Duties During COVID-19: Lessons Learned

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

In March 2020, the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused many disruptions to usual operations and demands in excess of normal capacity at NYU Langone Hospital Long Island and NYU Long Island School of Medicine. Significant increases in volume of critically ill patients necessitated hospital administrators to redeploy faculty physicians and other staff to support other areas as a way of exercising option value. This commentary describes our experiences as 2 medical school deans and teaching professors where we recently applied the model of situational leadership during our redeployment as unit clerks on newly-created COVID patient care units at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic in our local area. Our experience yielded personal feelings of accomplishment and allowed us to exercise nonlinear thinking, which we believe contributed to greater staff operational efficiency, using principles of situational leadership during these hospital redeployment initiatives.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Situational leadership is an effective management model for hospital academic leaders who are not routinely in clinical operations to initiate in emergency conditions when unprecedented working scenarios and feelings of staff uncertainty are occurring, while option value is being exercised with faculty/staff redeployment. Our experience led to increased self-actualization. We provide recommendations to health care administrators on how to better prepare for future faculty/staff redeployments in the hospital.

How to avoid others and influence people: Attachment orientations predict leader prototypicality in ad hoc teams

The existing literature has explored the role and importance of personality traits in leader prototypicality. However, limited research exists concerning the link between personality traits and leader emergence or prototypicality in ad hoc teams. Based on the relational leadership and attachment literature, we examine whether leader attachment orientations can serve as antecedents of leader prototypicality in ad hoc teams. Utilizing an ad hoc problem-solving task featuring a round-robin design in a sample of 197 participants, we find that individuals with a dominant avoidant attachment orientation were more likely to be perceived as leader-like or leader prototypical. In comparison, individuals with a dominant anxious attachment orientation were much less likely to emerge as leader prototypical. We interpret these findings in alignment with attachment theory and relational leadership and discuss the role of relational personality traits in ad hoc teams with no formally appointed leader.

Leader Intuition: Good or Bad for Multiteam System Performance? The Roles of Information Load and Introversion

Some leaders tend to use their intuition to think and make decisions more than others do. This individual difference (i.e., an intuitive cognitive style) may have important implications for the collectives of people they lead. Unfortunately, scholars lack a clear understanding of the conditions under which intuition is effective, especially in the context of large and complex organizational structures such as multiteam systems (MTSs). We argue that the effects of leaders’ intuitive cognitive style on MTS performance depends on the amount of information load they face in their roles, as well as their level of introversion: a personality characteristic that is associated with an inward and reflective focus. Using a sample of 222 MTSs comprised of Captains in the United States Air Force, our study demonstrated that the intuitive cognitive style of leaders in high information load roles positively affected MTS performance, especially if they were high in introversion. In low information load roles, however, an intuitive cognitive style had a negative effect on MTS performance, especially for leaders low in introversion. We also argued and found that MTS coordination effectiveness played a key mediating role. Our study advances research in multiple areas of work, including intuition, MTSs, and leadership.

Does Self-Sacrifice Make Me Great? Research on the Relationship Between Employee Conscientiousness and Pro-Social Rule Breaking

Based on the theory of purposeful work behavior, this study proposed that the two facets of employee conscientiousness, namely duty orientation and achievement orientation, have opposite effects on pro-social rule breaking (PSRB). We also explored the moderating effect of employees' task characteristic (job autonomy) and social characteristic (leader reward omission) on the above relationships. Using two-wave data collected from 216 employee-supervisor dyads, we found that duty orientation was positively related to PSRB, while achievement orientation was negatively related to PSRB. Further, job autonomy, by amplifying employees' perceived meaningfulness of their higher-order implicit goals, can strengthen the positive effect of duty orientation and the negative effect of achievement orientation on PSRB. Similarly, leader reward omission could also activate the negative effect of achievement orientation and PSRB, but not significantly moderate the positive relationship between duty orientation and PSRB. By separating the distinct role of facet-specific personality, our study sheds light on the relationship between employee conscientiousness and PSRB.

Leadership competencies for digital transformation: An exploratory content analysis of job advertisements

Harnessing the opportunities of emerging information technologies is one of the great challenges companies are facing today. To successfully master digital transformation, organizations need leaders who can grasp the opportunities of digitalization for their business and transform them into new business models. Aiming at providing empirical evidence regarding competencies sought by practitioners for managing digital transformation, we analyze 239 job advertisements targeting digital transformation experts and examine the skills and traits explicitly called for. Our results reveal that technical skills and in-depth expertise in information technologies play only a secondary role in job requirement profiles. Like in earlier strategic change processes, digital transformation experts should primarily possess collaboration, strategic thinking, leadership, customer orientation, and communication skills. Moreover, in contrast to purely conceptual studies limited to skills and abilities, our analyses emphasize the importance of specific personality traits, such as proactivity and creativity, since these are often explicitly mentioned in corresponding job advertisements.

Leader Extraversion as a Boundary Condition in the Relationship between Transformational Leadership, Vitality, and Job Improvement

We examine the relationship between transformational leadership and job improvement behaviors by considering the moderating effect of leader extraversion and the mediating role of employee vitality. Multi-level path analysis on data from 101 leaders and 619 subordinates provided support to the moderating effect of leader extraversion, such that the relationship between transformational leadership and employee vitality is stronger when the level of leader extraversion is high. Moreover, a moderated mediation procedure showed that the indirect effect of transformational leadership on job improvement via employee vitality was conditional to the level of leader extraversion. We highlight the original contributions of these findings by discussing the moderating role of leader extraversion as an understudied theoretical alternative to its already well-explored role as an antecedent to leadership behaviors. On a practical level, our results indicate that organizations should consider not only what leaders do (transformational leadership behaviors) but also how these behaviors are contextualized by leaders' typical approach (extraversion) to instill a maximum of positive emotion such as vitality in employees.

Exploring the Domain of Emotional Intelligence in Organizations: Bibliometrics, Content Analyses, Framework Development, and Research Agenda

Emotion is a kind of micro foundation that can affect human behaviors even in the digital era. Emotional intelligence (EI) is an important psychological factor that affects the growth and development of organizations from the view of emotion. Based on current bodies of literature, a comprehensive review of EI can contribute to its theory development in organization research and facilitate EI research burgeoning. We visualize the landscape of EI by analyzing 1,996 articles with CiteSpace their concepts, dimensions, and measurement. We propose two specific mechanisms, which clarify how individuals with high EI use emotional information to influence themselves and others. Following this, we develop a theoretical framework of EI at levels of individual, team, and organization. Finally, future directions and research agenda are addressed. This research contributes to the literature of EI and provides practical insight for practitioners.

Using game-like animations of geometric shapes to simulate social interactions: An evaluation of group score differences

This study introduces a novel, game-like method for measuring social intelligence: the Social Shapes Test. Unlike other existing video or game-based tests, the Shapes Test uses animations of abstract shapes to represent social interactions. We explore demographic differences in Shapes Test scores compared to a written situational judgment test. Gender and race/ethnicity only had meaningful effects on written SJT scores while no effects were found for Shapes Test scores. This pattern of results remained after controlling for general mental ability and English language exposure. We also found metric invariance between demographic groups for both tests. Our results demonstrate the potential for using animated shape tasks as an alternative to written SJTs when designing future game-based assessments.

Interrelations between enhanced emotional intelligence, leadership self-efficacy and task-oriented leadership behaviour–a leadership coaching study

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to investigate interrelations between enhanced emotional intelligence, leadership self-efficacy and task-oriented leadership behaviour following participation in leadership coaching.

Design/methodology/approach

Organisational leaders (coachees) (N = 70) and their subordinates (N = 175) completed online questionnaires pre- and post-coaching. To account for pre-coaching scores, construct latent change scores were assessed using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM).

Findings

Results indicate a positive association between enhanced emotional intelligence and leadership self-efficacy, however, little support was found for leadership self-efficacy as a mediator explaining an association between enhanced emotional intelligence and task-oriented leadership behaviour.

Practical implications

Organisations aiming to improve leader performance through enhancing emotional intelligence and leadership self-efficacy may find value in leadership coaching due to the intervention's positive effect on these constructs, and the positive association observed between developmental changes in these constructs.

Originality/value

Research on the interrelation between emotional intelligence and leadership self-efficacy is scarce. This study extends the literature by investigating the interrelation between developmental changes between these constructs brought about by leadership coaching using latent change scores and PLS-SEM. The study also assesses whether enhanced leadership self-efficacy mediates an association between enhanced emotional intelligence and task-oriented leadership behaviour building on the literature explaining coaching's effect mechanisms.

The Leadership Stories Our Youth Are Told: Characterizations of Leadership Behaviors and Orientations in Popular Youth TV Shows

Given the consistently high viewership of television (TV) by youth, the social, behavioral, developmental, and psychological impact of such viewing has been studied for decades. Yet, little research has focused on the connections between youth, the TV shows to which they are exposed, and the characterizations of leadership presented to them. This study examines the type of leadership behaviors and orientations presented through youth TV shows in the United States across a continuum of viewership age targets. Shows were selected through purposeful sampling from the most popular youth TV shows in the United States, and episodes were chosen based on synopsis, selecting for the greatest possibility of leadership scenarios. Researchers identified three shows for each viewer target age group and five episodes for each TV show, for a total of 75 episodes. The findings include the discovery that show-prescribed viewer target age group positively predicted leadership behavior such as direction-setting-i.e., gathering information, organizing information, sense-making, and forecasting. Additionally, as viewer target age range increased, shows presented with a decrease in communal leadership-characterized as caring, warm, trustworthy, empathetic, helpful, and/or friendly. Such findings suggest that the representations of leadership depicted in popular youth TV shows are transmitting potentially counterproductive messages to future leaders, deprioritizing crucial leadership elements.

Possibilities for assessing authentic leadership competencies: testing existing instruments and proposing an extended one

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is twofold: to test existing Authentic Leadership (AL) instruments simultaneously in the same environment, and based on these, to propose an extended instrument for the assessment of AL intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies.

Design/methodology/approach

Three existing instruments of AL – Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) (Walumbwa et al., 2008), Authentic Leadership Inventory (ALI) (Neider and Schriesheim, 2011) and the Three Pillar Model (TPM) (Beddoes-Jones and Swailes, 2015) – were tested, and an extended instrument was proposed based on the results. Two different samples were used – a homogeneous sample (N = 1021) from the military and a heterogeneous sample (N = 547) from retail, catering, public services and logistics industries. Construct validity for the instruments was assessed using a confirmatory factor analysis, and the internal consistency of the factors was analysed using Cronbach’s alpha.

Findings

From existing instruments, two out of three indicate issues with internal factor consistency and model fit. The internal consistency of factors and model fit of the extended instrument developed here is satisfactory and suitable for assessing authentic leadership competencies in a single organisation or industry.

Originality/value

This paper sees AL as the behaviour of leaders affected by leadership competencies. Three existing AL instruments were tested alongside a proposed extended instrument to assess AL intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies in the same context.

Why do you treat me in such ways? An attachment examination on supervisors’ early family environment and subordinates’ responses

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to fill important gaps by using the attachment theory and examining the effects of supervisors’ early family environment on their behaviors toward subordinates and subordinates’ responses.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors used samples of 334 supervisor–subordinate pairs from a manufacturing company.

Findings

The study finds that supervisors’ harmonious family environment has a positive influence on subordinates’ responses (job satisfaction, work-to-family enrichment and task performance) through the effect of supervisors’ positive working model and caregiving behavior. On the contrast, supervisors’ conflicting family environment has a negative influence on subordinates’ responses through the effect of supervisors’ negative working model and aggressive behavior.

Originality/value

Existing studies mainly explore the influence of organizational environment on supervisors’ treatment of their subordinates. However, few have examined the relationship between supervisors’ early family environment and their treatment of their subordinates.

"Perfect Leader, Perfect Leadership?" Linking Leaders' Perfectionism to Monitoring, Transformational, and Servant Leadership Behavior

Despite the growing interest in perfectionism and its many facets, there is a lack of research on this phenomenon in the context of leadership. Attending to this deficit, the present study is the first to investigate the relationship between the three facets of perfectionism (self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism) and three types of self-rated leadership behavior. In Study 1 (N = 182), leaders’ perfectionism and its association to their organizational, goal-oriented leadership behavior—self-rated as transactional (management by exception) and transformational leadership—is explored. In Study 2 (N = 185), the relationship of leaders’ perfectionism to their servant leadership as a people-centered leadership behavior is investigated. In line with the perfectionism social disconnection model (PSDM), we assume other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism to be positively related to management by exception (i.e., monitoring behavior) and negatively related to transformational and servant leadership, whereas the opposite pattern is primarily predicted for self-oriented perfectionism. Our findings in Study 1 reveal a negative relationship between leaders’ self-oriented perfectionism as well as positive relationships to their other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism in management by exception, while no substantial correlations with transformational leadership have emerged. In Study 2, a negative association between other-oriented perfectionism and the forgiveness dimension of servant leadership is revealed, indicating a possible barrier to building interpersonal relationships of acceptance and trust. Additionally, self-oriented perfectionism has been proven to be a rather favorable trait in servant leadership.

The impact of preferences for clinical and managerial leadership roles on the willingness to apply for a medical leadership position: Analysis of gender differences among a sample of German senior physicians

BACKGROUND

The hybrid role (clinical and managerial leadership tasks) of physicians in medical leadership positions (MLPs) is a driver of the attractiveness of these positions. The increasing feminization of the medical profession makes gender-related preferences for hybrid roles relevant.

PURPOSE

The current study uses the (EPL) career aspirations framework to analyze the (gender-related) effects that efficacy beliefs, motivations, and preferences for clinical leadership and managerial leadership have on the willingness of chief physicians to apply for an MLP.Methodology: A survey of senior physicians in German university hospitals yielded a sample size of N = 496. The resulting data were analyzed using a structural equation modeling approach.

FINDINGS

The results confirm the low preference for MLPs among senior physicians, which is mainly affected by preferences for managerial leadership tasks. Female senior physicians perceive the position of an MLP to be less attractive than their male counterparts do, and female physicians' willingness to apply for an MLP is concurrently driven by their preferences for clinical leadership and managerial leadership tasks.Practical implications: Mentoring programs could boost female senior physicians' preparedness for MLPs. Further, flexibility in fulfilling managerial leadership tasks could be promoted to make MLPs more attractive to women.

Drivers or Drifters? The "Who" and "Why" of Leader Role Occupancy-A Mixed-Method Study

This study investigated the reasons that leaders have given for their leader role occupancy. By using a mixed-method approach and large leader data, we aimed to provide a more nuanced picture of how leader positions are occupied in real life. We examined how individual leadership motivation may associate with other reasons for leader role occupancy. In addition, we aimed to integrate the different reasons behind leader role occupancy into the framework of sustainable leader careers and its two indicators: leader's health (occupational well-being) and performance (measured indirectly as followers' occupational well-being). The survey data consisted of 1,031 leaders from various sectors of working life. Qualitative analysis revealed that leaders mention various factors behind their leader role occupancy, resulting 26 themes. After inductive investigation of the data, theory-driven analysis focused on the sustainable career components (person, context, time) and agency vs. non-agency. Qualitative data was quantitized based on the theory-driven categories for statistical analysis. Based on the these analysis, we found out that only Affective-Identity MTL predicted all of the studied reasons behind leader role occupancy, whereas the other motivation types (Non-calculative MTL and Social-Normative MTL) did not. All of the reasons for leader role occupancy except non-agentic ones were related to both leaders' own and their followers' occupational well-being. Leaders with more person-related and agentic reasons for leader role occupancy experienced better occupational well-being. Person- and context-related and agentic reasons behind leader role occupancy associated also with followers' occupational well-being, but the associations differed from those of leaders' well-being: person-related and agentic reasons associated with followers' exhaustion, but this association was not found among leaders. Our study provided important information for practitioners in the field of human resources and development, as it has shown that if the reasons for leader role occupancy mainly reflect circumstances or other non-person-related reasons, the experienced occupational well-being and person-career fit may remain weak. It is necessary to try to support the leadership motivation for those leaders, or to shape the job description in such a way that it can also offer the experiences of meaningfulness from aspects other than self-realization through a managerial role.

Attributing social meaning to animated shapes: A new experimental study of apparent behavior

In 1944, Heider and Simmel reported that observers could perceive simple animated geometric shapes as characters with emotions, intentions, and other social attributes. This work has been cited over 3000 times and has had wide and ongoing influence on the study of social cognition and social intelligence. However, many researchers in this area have continued to use the original Heider and Simmel black-and-white video. We asked whether the original findings could be reproduced 75 years later by creating 32 new colored animated shape videos designed to depict various social plots and testing whether they can evoke similar spontaneous social attributions. Participants (N = 66) viewed our videos and were asked to write narratives which we coded for indicia of different types of social attributions. Consistent with Heider and Simmel, we found that participants spontaneously attributed social meaning to the videos. We observed that responses to our videos were also similar to responses to the original video reported by Klin (2000), despite being only 13-23 s and portraying a broader range of social plots. Participants varied in how many social attributions they made in response, and the videos varied in how much they elicited such responses. Our set of animated shape videos is freely available online for all researchers to use and forms the basis of a multiple-choice assessment of social intelligence (Brown et al., 2019).

The Bottleneck Metaphor of Leadership Culture: How Shared Understandings About Leadership Develop in Groups and Impede Diversity and Effectiveness of Leaders

There are two big problems related to leadership today: unequal representation and high failure rates among leaders. This conceptual paper argues that commonly shared values, assumptions, and beliefs about leadership, i.e., universal leadership culture, are the common cause of both problems. After the concepts and levels related to leadership culture were explained, we introduce a multilevel, multi-actor process model named the bottleneck metaphor of leadership culture. This metaphor describes how leadership cultures are co-constructed by multiple actors based on their involvement in leader selection and reproduce themselves in groups over time based on emergent leaders' characteristics. Next, a diagnostic tool called “the leadership mirror” is proposed for organizations that want to assess their leadership culture's current state as a starting point for further interventions. Specific suggestions are made for various actors, ranging from individuals to organizations, for their possible roles in preventing undesired leadership cultures.

Leadership development of nursing professionals: Education and influences of self-efficacy

BACKGROUND

According to Bandura's theory, understanding the relationship of traits and leader self-efficacy in the various roles of nursing can aid in leader development and the growth of the profession.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of leader self-efficacy of academic nursing professionals to determine if traits and participation in certain activities was predictive of leader self-efficacy.

METHOD

A validated survey tool, the Leader Efficacy Questionnaire (LEQ) was administered to nursing professionals using snowball sampling from publicly available email addresses.

FINDINGS

Statistical significance was found between the academic degrees and the 4 scores of the LEQ. Overall, the participants reported moderate to high leader self-efficacy with an LEQ overall score (LSME) of 70 or greater.

DISCUSSION

The dynamic challenges of health care require an understanding of nursing professionals' leader self-efficacy in light of their academic preparation and activities to grow the profession.

Stick to Convention or Bring Forth the New? Research on the Relationship Between Employee Conscientiousness and Job Crafting

Integrating regulatory focus theory and personality literature, we develop and test a moderated mediation model to specify the mediation mechanisms and boundary conditions of the association between employee conscientiousness and job crafting. Two-wave data collected from 389 employees and 95 supervisors showed that: Employee conscientiousness was positively associated with work promotion focus and work prevention focus. Employee conscientiousness was positively related to job crafting via work promotion focus, negatively related to job crafting via work prevention focus. Error management climate positively moderated the relationship between employee conscientiousness and work promotion focus, negatively moderated the relationship between employee conscientiousness and work prevention focus. The indirect relationship between employee conscientiousness and job crafting through work promotion focus was more pronounced under positive error management climate rather than negative, whereas the indirect relationship through work prevention focus was more pronounced under negative error management climate rather than positive.