Nanotherapeutics in the treatment of acute respiratory distress syndrome

Advances in anti-inflammatory treatment of sepsis-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome

Sepsis is characterized by a dysregulated host response to infection, leading to organ dysfunction and associated with significant morbidity and mortality, posing a critical challenge to global public health. Among its complications, sepsis frequently causes acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which has a high incidence and mortality rate, particularly in intensive care units (ICUs). Currently, the management of sepsis-induced ARDS is largely limited to supportive care, as no specific pharmacological treatments are available. The progression of sepsis to ARDS is driven by severe inflammation and cytokine storms, highlighting the importance of anti-inflammatory therapies as a primary treatment focus. We summarize conventional drugs and emerging treatments targeting excessive inflammatory responses in sepsis-associated ARDS, reviewing progress in basic research and clinical trials. Additionally, we discuss current research challenges to propose future directions for anti-inflammatory treatments, aiming to develop highly effective drugs with better clinical translation potential.

Sparstolonin B nano-formulation attenuates LPS-induced lung injury

Introduction

Nanomedicines can improve drug delivery and efficacy while reducing side effects. Our study examines the impact of a nano-formulation of Sparstolonin B (nSsnB), a TLR-4 antagonist, on LPS-induced inflammation in RAW264.7 cells and lung injury in mice.

Methods

RAW264.7 cells were treated with LPS (1 μg/mL) ± nSsnB (2-64 μg/mL) for 24 h. Cell viability was assessed, cytokine levels in media were measured, and cell lysates were used to quantify NF-κB activation. C57BL/6 mice were treated with prophylactic intratracheal (IT) nSsnB (0.625 mg/kg) ± IT LPS (2.5 mg/kg). Blood and BALF were collected for cytokine, protein and cytological analysis. Lung histology was scored to evaluate lung injury. The relative abundance of MyD88 and phosphorylated NF-κB were measured in lung and HLL mice were used to measure NF-κB activation in vivo.

Results

nSsnB demonstrated reduced toxicity vs. free SsnB. nSsnB ameliorated the LPS-induced increase in TNF-α, IL-6 and NF-κB P65 phosphorylation in RAW264.7 cells. LPS-treated mice revealed histologic ALI, elevated BALF neutrophils/macrophages/total protein, and increased levels of TNF-α/IL-6 in both BALF and plasma. Prophylactic nSsnB attenuated all these parameters in the LPS/nSsnB group. The increased levels of MyD88 and P-NF-κB P65 in lung from LPS-treated mice were reduced in the LPS/nSsnB group and nSsnB attenuated the increase in NF-κB activation induced by IT LPS in HLL mice.

Conclusion

nSsnB demonstrates less toxicity than free SsnB and attenuates the effects of LPS on inflammation in RAW264.7 cells. Prophylactic nSsnB attenuates LPS-induced ALI by reducing inflammation via MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathways. Collectively these findings support the therapeutic potential of nano-formulated nSsnB for ALI treatment.

Soluble E-cadherin contributes to inflammation in acute lung injury via VEGF/VEGFR2 signaling

As a gatekeeper of the airway epithelial cells, E-cadherin is not only a critical component for the maintenance of epithelial integrity, but also engaged in pathological processes through the release of a soluble form (sE-cadherin). This study was aimed to investigate the role of sE-cadherin in ALI/ARDS. Serum samples from patients with ARDS and healthy volunteers were collected for the detection of sE-cadherin. An LPS-induced mouse model was induced to analyze the expression of sE-cadherin, and a neutralizing antibody against sE-cadherin (DECMA-1) was given to the LPS-exposed mice. The effects of recombinant sE-cadherin were tested both in vitro and in vivo, and VEGFR2 inhibition was used to explore a possible mechanism for sE-cadherin-induced pulmonary inflammation. We observed an increased level of sE-cadherin in ARDS patients as well as in LPS-exposed mice. In vivo treatment of DECMA-1 significantly attenuated LPS-induced inflammation. In vitro, exogenous sE-cadherin can dramatically upregulate the expression of VEGF in THP1-derived macrophages and human primary macrophages. In addition, intratracheal instillation of recombinant sE-cadherin leads to significant increased infiltration of neutrophils as well as overproduction of IL-6 and IL1β, which could be attenuated by inhibition of VEGF/VEGFR2 signaling. While blockade of the VEGF/VEGFR2 pathway inhibited pulmonary inflammatory responses in LPS-exposed mice. Taken together, our data demonstrated that sE-cadherin contributes to lung inflammation in ALI/ARDS, which is related to activation of the VEGF/VEGFR2 pathway.

Nanotherapy therapy for acute respiratory distress syndrome: a review

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a complex and life-threatening disease characterized by severe respiratory failure. The lethality of ARDS remains alarmingly high, especially with the persistent ravages of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in recent years. ARDS is one of the major complications of neocoronavirus pneumonia and the leading cause of death in infected patients. The large-scale outbreak of COVID-19 has greatly increased the incidence and mortality of ARDS. Despite advancements in our understanding of the causes and mechanisms of ARDS, the current clinical practice is still limited to the use of supportive medications to alleviate its progression. However, there remains a pressing need for effective therapeutic drugs to combat this devastating disease. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the commonly used therapeutic drugs for ARDS, including steroids, vitamin C, targeted inhibitors, and heparin. While these medications have shown some promise in managing ARDS, there is still a significant gap in the availability of definitive treatments. Moreover, we highlight the potential of nanocarrier delivery systems, such as liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, polymer nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles, as promising therapeutic approaches for ARDS in the future. These innovative delivery systems have demonstrated encouraging results in early clinical trials and offer the potential for more targeted and effective treatment options. Despite the promising early results, further clinical trials are necessary to fully assess the efficacy and safety of nanotherapies for ARDS. Additionally, more in-depth research should be conducted to focus on the continuous development of precision therapies targeting different stages of ARDS development or different triggers. This will provide more ideas and rationale for the treatment of ARDS and ultimately lead to better patient outcomes.

Cell-derived biomimetic drug delivery system for inflammatory bowel disease therapy

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic recurrent disease with an increasing incidence year by year. At present, no safe and effective treatment for IBD exists. Thus, there is an urgent need to create new therapeutic options that have decreased adverse effects and positive clinical efficacy. A range of nanomaterials have fueled the advancement of nanomedicine in recent years, which is establishing more appealing and prospective treatment approaches for IBD. However, traditional synthetic nanomaterials still have some problems in the IBD drug delivery process, such as weak targeting ability of vectors, difficulty escaping immune surveillance, and poor biosecurity. Natural sources of biological nanomaterials have been identified to solve the above problems. A drug delivery system based on bionic technology is expected to achieve a new breakthrough in the targeted therapy of IBD by nanotechnology due to its organic integration of low immunogenicity and natural targeting of biological materials and the controllability and versatility of synthetic nanocarrier design. We begin this review by outlining the fundamental traits of both inflammatory and healthy intestinal microenvironments. Subsequently, we review the latest application of a cell-derived bionic drug delivery system in IBD therapy. Finally, we discuss the development prospects of this delivery system and challenges to its clinical translation. Biomimetic nanotherapy is believed to offer a new strategy for the treatment of IBD.

Multipotent mesenchymal stromal/stem cell-based therapies for acute respiratory distress syndrome: current progress, challenges, and future frontiers

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a critical, life-threatening condition marked by severe inflammation and impaired lung function. Mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) present a promising therapeutic avenue due to their immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and regenerative capabilities. This review comprehensively evaluates MSC-based strategies for ARDS treatment, including direct administration, tissue engineering, extracellular vesicles (EVs), nanoparticles, natural products, artificial intelligence (AI), gene modification, and MSC preconditioning. Direct MSC administration has demonstrated therapeutic potential but necessitates optimization to overcome challenges related to effective cell delivery, homing, and integration into damaged lung tissue. Tissue engineering methods, such as 3D-printed scaffolds and MSC sheets, enhance MSC survival and functionality within lung tissue. EVs and MSC-derived nanoparticles offer scalable and safer alternatives to cell-based therapies. Likewise, natural products and bioactive compounds derived from plants can augment MSC function and resilience, offering complementary strategies to enhance therapeutic outcomes. In addition, AI technologies could aid in optimizing MSC delivery and dosing, and gene editing tools like CRISPR/Cas9 allow precise modification of MSCs to enhance their therapeutic properties and target specific ARDS mechanisms. Preconditioning MSCs with hypoxia, growth factors, or pharmacological agents further enhances their therapeutic potential. While MSC therapies hold significant promise for ARDS, extensive research and clinical trials are essential to determine optimal protocols and ensure long-term safety and effectiveness.

Cell-derived biomimetic nanoparticles for the targeted therapy of ALI/ARDS

Acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) are common clinical critical diseases with high morbidity and mortality. Especially since the COVID-19 outbreak, the mortality rates of critically ill patients with ARDS can be as high as 60%. Therefore, this problem has become a matter of concern to respiratory critical care. To date, the main clinical measures for ALI/ARDS are mechanical ventilation and drug therapy. Although ventilation treatment reduces mortality, it increases the risk of hyperxemia, and drug treatment lacks safe and effective delivery methods. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies for ALI/ARDS are urgently needed. Developments in nanotechnology have allowed the construction of a safe, efficient, precise, and controllable drug delivery system. However, problems still encounter in the treatment of ALI/ARDS, such as the toxicity, poor targeting ability, and immunogenicity of nanomaterials. Cell-derived biomimetic nanodelivery drug systems have the advantages of low toxicity, long circulation, high targeting, and high bioavailability and show great therapeutic promises for ALI/ARDS owing to their acquired cellular biological features and some functions. This paper reviews ALI/ARDS treatments based on cell membrane biomimetic technology and extracellular vesicle biomimetic technology, aiming to achieve a significant breakthrough in ALI/ARDS treatments.

Physiologically based pharmacokinetic model for predicting the biodistribution of albumin nanoparticles after induction and recovery from acute lung injury

The application of nanomedicine in the treatment of acute lung injury (ALI) has great potential for the development of new therapeutic strategies. To gain insight into the kinetics of nanocarrier distribution upon time-dependent changes in tissue permeability after ALI induction in mice, we developed a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model for albumin nanoparticles (ANP). The model was calibrated using data from mice treated with intraperitoneal LPS (6 mg/kg), followed by intravenous ANP (0.5 mg/mouse or about 20.8 mg/kg) at 0.5, 6, and 24 h. The simulation results reproduced the experimental observations and indicated that the accumulation of ANP in the lungs increased, reaching a peak 6 h after LPS injury, whereas it decreased in the liver, kidney, and spleen. The model predicted that LPS caused an immediate (within the first 30 min) dramatic increase in lung and kidney tissue permeability, whereas splenic tissue permeability gradually increased over 24 h after LPS injection. This information can be used to design new therapies targeting specific organs affected by bacterial infections and potentially by other inflammatory insults.

Pulmonary drug delivery devices and nanosystems as potential treatment strategies for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)

Despite advances in drug delivery technologies, treating acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is challenging due to pathophysiological barriers such as lung injury, oedema fluid build-up, and lung inflammation. Active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) can be delivered directly to the lung site of action with the use of aerosol-based drug delivery devices, and this circumvents the hepatic first-pass effect and improves the bioavailability of drugs. This review discusses the various challenges and barriers for pulmonary drug delivery, current interventions for delivery, considerations for effective drug delivery, and the use of nanoparticle drug delivery carriers as potential strategies for delivering therapeutics in ARDS. Nanosystems have the added benefit of entrapping drugs, increase pulmonary drug bioavailability, and using biocompatible and biodegradable excipients that can facilitate targeted and/or controlled delivery. These systems provide an alternative to existing conventional systems. An effective way to deliver drugs for the treatment of ARDS can be by using colloidal systems that are aerosolized or inhaled. Drug distribution to the deeper pulmonary tissues is necessary due to the significant endothelial cell destruction that is prevalent in ARDS. The particle size of nanoparticles (<0.5 μm) makes them ideal candidates for treating ARDS as they can reach the alveoli. A look into the various potential benefits and limitations of nanosystems used for other lung disorders is also considered to indicate how they may be useful for the potential treatment of ARDS.

ARC@DPBNPs suppress LPS-induced acute lung injury via inhibiting macrophage pyroptosis and M1 polarization by ERK pathway in mice

AIM OF THE STUDY

Exploring the protective effect of ARC@DPBNP on lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced ALI and its underlying mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ALI model was established by intransally administrating LPS (4 mg/kg) into C57BL/6 mice. The suppression effects of ALI was first compared between ARC (intragastric administrated, with doses ranging from 10 to 80 mg/kg) and ARC@BPBNPs (intratracheally administrated, with doses ranging from 1 to 4 mg/kg). Changes in lung histology post intratracheal intervention of 3 mg/kg ARC@DPBNPs were detected. The expression of pyrotosis pathway-related proteins in lungs as well as in RAW264.7 cells was detected by western blotting. The ASC expression in lung macrophages was examined using immune-fluorescent staining. The polarization of RAW264.7 cells and lung macrophages were detected by flow cytometry. The network pharmacology was constructed by Cytoscape, and the molecular docking was perfomed by AutoDock Vina.

RESULTS

Docking predicted the high affinity of ARC to MAPK1 (ERK2). HE staining showed that ARC@DPBNPs attenuated LPS-induced ALI at a remarkably lower dose than ARC. The improved histopathological changes, lung W/D weight ratio, and decreased of inflammatory factor levels in lung collectively demonstrated the alleviation effects of ARC@DPBNPs. Compared with the LPS group, ARC@DPBNPs down-regulated the ERK pathway, resulted in a suppression of the macrophage pyroptosis and M1 polarization. This suppression effects could be removed by the ERK activator Ro 67-7476.

CONCLUSION

ARC@DPBNPs attenuated ALI by suppressing LPS-induced macrophage pyroptosis and polarization, probably through down-regulation of the ERK pathway.

Nebulized pH-Responsive Nanospray Combined with Pentoxifylline and Edaravone to Lungs for Efficient Treatments of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

The COVID-19 pandemic has become an unprecedented global medical emergency, resulting in more than 5 million deaths. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) caused by COVID-19, characterized by the release of a large number of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the production of excessive toxic ROS, is the most common serious complication leading to death. To develop new strategies for treating ARDS caused by COVID-19, a mouse model of ARDS was established by using lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Subsequently, we have constructed a novel nanospray with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant capacity by loading pentoxifylline (PTX) and edaravone (Eda) on zeolite imidazolate frameworks-8 (ZIF-8). This nanospray was endowed with synergetic therapy, which could kill two birds with one stone: (1) the loaded PTX played a powerful anti-inflammatory role by inhibiting the activation of inflammatory cells and the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines; (2) Eda served as a free radical scavenger in ARDS. Furthermore, compared with the traditional intravenous administration, nanosprays can be administered directly and inhaled efficiently and reduce the risk of systemic adverse reactions greatly. This nanospray could not only coload two drugs efficiently but also realize acid-responsive release on local lung tissue. Importantly, ZIF8-EP nanospray showed an excellent therapeutic effect on ARDS in vitro and in vivo, which provided a new direction for the treatment of ARDS.

Opportunities and Challenges for Inhalable Nanomedicine Formulations in Respiratory Diseases: A Review

Lungs experience frequent interactions with the external environment and have an abundant supply of blood; therefore, they are susceptible to invasion by pathogenic microorganisms and tumor cells. However, the limited pharmacokinetics of conventional drugs in the lungs poses a clinical challenge. The emergence of different nano-formulations has been facilitated by advancements in nanotechnology. Inhaled nanomedicines exhibit better targeting and prolonged therapeutic effects. Although nano-formulations have great potential, they still present several unknown risks. Herein, we review the (1) physiological anatomy of the lungs and their biological barriers, (2) pharmacokinetics and toxicology of nanomaterial formulations in the lungs; (3) current nanomaterials that can be applied to the respiratory system and related design strategies, and (4) current applications of inhaled nanomaterials in treating respiratory disorders, vaccine design, and imaging detection based on the characteristics of different nanomaterials. Finally, (5) we analyze and summarize the challenges and prospects of nanomaterials for respiratory disease applications. We believe that nanomaterials, particularly inhaled nano-formulations, have excellent prospects for application in respiratory diseases. However, we emphasize that the simultaneous toxic side effects of biological nanomaterials must be considered during the application of these emerging medicines. This study aims to offer comprehensive guidelines and valuable insights for conducting research on nanomaterials in the domain of the respiratory system.

Autophagy-modulating biomaterials: multifunctional weapons to promote tissue regeneration

Autophagy is a self-renewal mechanism that maintains homeostasis and can promote tissue regeneration by regulating inflammation, reducing oxidative stress and promoting cell differentiation. The interaction between biomaterials and tissue cells significantly affects biomaterial-tissue integration and tissue regeneration. In recent years, it has been found that biomaterials can affect various processes related to tissue regeneration by regulating autophagy. The utilization of biomaterials in a controlled environment has become a prominent approach for enhancing the tissue regeneration capabilities. This involves the regulation of autophagy in diverse cell types implicated in tissue regeneration, encompassing the modulation of inflammatory responses, oxidative stress, cell differentiation, proliferation, migration, apoptosis, and extracellular matrix formation. In addition, biomaterials possess the potential to serve as carriers for drug delivery, enabling the regulation of autophagy by either activating or inhibiting its processes. This review summarizes the relationship between autophagy and tissue regeneration and discusses the role of biomaterial-based autophagy in tissue regeneration. In addition, recent advanced technologies used to design autophagy-modulating biomaterials are summarized, and rational design of biomaterials for providing controlled autophagy regulation via modification of the chemistry and surface of biomaterials and incorporation of cells and molecules is discussed. A better understanding of biomaterial-based autophagy and tissue regeneration, as well as the underlying molecular mechanisms, may lead to new possibilities for promoting tissue regeneration. Video Abstract.

The link between neutrophils, NETs, and NLRP3 inflammasomes: The dual effect of CD177 and its therapeutic potential in acute respiratory distress syndrome/acute lung injury

Neutrophils are important inflammatory effector cells that protect against foreign invasion but also cause self-harm. Numerous neutrophils infiltrate the lungs in acute respiratory distress syndrome/acute lung injury (ARDS/ALI) patients. However, the exact impact of neutrophil infiltration on ARDS's onset and progression remains unclear. To investigate this, we analyzed two ARDS-related datasets from the Gene Expression Omnibus public database and discovered an association between CD177, a neutrophil-specific surface protein, and ARDS progression. We used quantitative flow cytometry to assess CD177+ neutrophils in the peripheral blood of clinical ARDS patients vs healthy controls, finding a significant increase in CD177+ neutrophils percentage among total neutrophils in ARDS patients. This finding was further confirmed in ALI mouse models. Subsequent animal experiments showed that anti-CD177 effectively reduces pulmonary edema, neutrophil infiltration, and inflammatory cytokine release, along with a decrease in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) levels. We also established an in vitro co-culture system to mimic neutrophil and lung epithelial cell interactions. In the anti-CD177 group, we observed decreased expression of NLRP3, caspase 1, peptidyl arginine deiminase (PAD4), MPO, and ROS, along with a reduction in certain inflammatory cytokines. These results indicate a crucial role for the CD177 gene in ARDS's development and progression. Inhibiting CD177 may help mitigate excessive activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes, ROS, and neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), thus alleviating ARDS.

Pulmonary drug delivery for acute respiratory distress syndrome

The acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a life-threatening condition that causes respiratory failure. Despite numerous clinical trials, there are no molecularly targeted pharmacologic therapies to prevent or treat ARDS. Drug delivery during ARDS is challenging due to the heterogenous nature of lung injury and occlusion of lung units by edema fluid and inflammation. Pulmonary drug delivery during ARDS offers several potential advantages including limiting the off-target and off-organ effects and directly targeting the damaged and inflamed lung regions. In this review we summarize recent ARDS clinical trials using both systemic and pulmonary drug delivery. We then discuss the advantages of pulmonary drug delivery and potential challenges to its implementation. Finally, we discuss the use of nanoparticle drug delivery and surfactant-based drug carriers as potential strategies for delivering therapeutics to the injured lung in ARDS.

Inhaled platelet vesicle-decoyed biomimetic nanoparticles attenuate inflammatory lung injury

Acute lung injury (ALI) is an inflammatory response which causes serious damages to alveolar epithelia and vasculature, and it still remains high lethality and mortality with no effective treatment. Based on the inflammatory homing of platelets and cell membrane cloaking nanotechnology, in this study we developed a biomimetic anti-inflammation nanoparticle delivery system for ALI treatment. PM@Cur-RV NPs were designed by combining the poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (NPs) coated with platelet membrane vesicles (PM) for the purpose of highly targeting delivery of curcumin (Cur) and resveratrol (RV) to inflammatory lungs. PM@Cur-RV NPs showed good biocompatibility and biosafety both in vitro and in vivo. Accumulation of NPs into lung tract was observed after inhaled NPs. Remarkably, the inhalation of PM@Cur-RV NPs effectively inhibited lung vascular injury evidenced by the decreased lung vascular permeability, and the reduced proinflammatory cytokine burden in an ALI mouse model. The analysis of infiltrated macrophages in the lungs showed that the Cur-RV-modulated macrophage polarized towards M2 phenotype and the decreased histone lactylation might contribute to their anti-inflammation effects. Together, this work highlights the potential of inhalation of biomimetic nanoparticle delivery of curcumin and resveratrol for the treatment of pulmonary diseases.

Nanotechnology and COVID-19 Convergence: Toward New Planetary Health Interventions Against the Pandemic

COVID-19 is a systemic disease affecting multiple organ systems and caused by infection with the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Two years into the COVID-19 pandemic and after the introduction of several vaccines, the pandemic continues to evolve in part owing to global inequities in access to preventive and therapeutic measures. We are also witnessing the introduction of antivirals against COVID-19. Against this current background, we review the progress made with nanotechnology-based approaches such as nanoformulations to combat the multiorgan effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection from a systems medicine lens. While nanotechnology has previously been widely utilized in the antiviral research domain, it has not yet received the commensurate interest in the case of COVID-19 pandemic response strategies. Notably, SARS-CoV-2 and nanomaterials are similar in size ranging from 50 to 200 nm. Nanomaterials offer the promise to reduce the side effects of antiviral drugs, codeliver multiple drugs while maintaining stability in the biological milieu, and sustain the release of entrapped drug(s) for a predetermined time period, to name but a few conceivable scenarios, wherein nanotechnology can enable and empower preventive medicine and therapeutic innovations against SARS-CoV-2. We conclude the article by underlining that nanotechnology-based interventions warrant further consideration to enable precision planetary health responses against the COVID-19 pandemic.

An mTOR siRNA-Loaded Spermidine/DNA Tetrahedron Nanoplatform with a Synergistic Anti-Inflammatory Effect on Acute Lung Injury

Acute lung injury (ALI) is characterized by severe inflammation and damage to the lung air-blood barrier, resulting in respiratory function damage and life-threatening outcomes. Macrophage polarization plays an essential role in the occurrence, development, and outcome of ALI. As drug carriers, self-assembled DNA nanostructures can potentially overcome the drawbacks and limitations of traditional anti-inflammatory agents owing to their nontoxicity, programmability, and excellent structural control at the nanoscale. A small interfering RNA (siRNA) and drug dual therapy nanoplatform are proposed and constructed here to combat ALI. The nanoplatform consists of a spermidine-assembled DNA tetrahedron and four mammalian target of rapamycin siRNAs. Spermidine serves as a mediator of drug delivery vehicle synthesis and a drug that alters macrophage polarization. Both spermidine and siRNA exert anti-inflammatory effects in vitro and in vivo by regulating the macrophage phenotype. More importantly, these factors exhibit a synergistic anti-inflammatory effect by promoting macrophage autophagy. For the first time, an anti-inflammatory dual therapy strategy that uses self-assembled DNA nanostructures as nontoxic, programmable delivery vehicles is proposed and demonstrated through this work. Future work on utilizing DNA nanostructures for the treatment of noncancerous diseases such as ALI is highly promising and desirable.

Inhaled nano-based therapeutics for inflammatory lung diseases: Recent advances and future prospects

Inflammatory lung diseases related morbidity and mortality impose a significant financial burden. Inflammation is a hallmark of many diseases of the respiratory system which is directly or indirectly linked to adverse health conditions, air pollution, rapid lifestyle changes, and regular outbreaks of microbial infections. The unique anatomical and physiological features of the lungs make them an ideal target organ in the treatment of inflammatory respiratory disease and with the help of inhaled therapy lungs can be targeted directly. The principal objective of this review is to present the comprehensive role of inhaled nano-based therapeutics such as liposomes, niosomes, nanoparticles, nanoemulsion, nanosuspension, and exosomes in the treatment and management of inflammatory respiratory diseases. Inhaled nanomedicines provide targeted diagnosis and treatment, improved drug solubility and distribution, prevent first-pass hepatic metabolism, improved patient compliance, and reduced drug side effects. They overcome several biological barriers in the human body and provide immediate, and quick-onset of action. Future research should be focused on improving the therapeutic efficiency of inhaled nanocarriers and to carry out in-depth mechanistic studies to translate current scientific knowledge for the efficient management of inflammatory lung diseases with minimal or no toxicity.