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Alonso-Rodríguez R, Pichardo-Velarde JG. Effects of temperature and nutrients on growth and toxicity of Alexandrium affine from southeastern Gulf of California. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2024; 203:116464. [PMID: 38759464 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
An Alexandrium affine strain (AAJQ-1) from San José Island, Gulf of California was characterized for growth and toxicology. Fivefold of f/2 + Se cultures were incubated for 34 days in a temperature gradient (21-29 °C). Aliquots were collected every third day for cell counting, toxin determination, and nutrient analyses. In this study ELISA method was used to evaluate the PSP toxin production due to the lower detection limit than the HPLC method. The highest cell density (6724 cells mL-1) and growth rate (0.22 day-1) were obtained at 27 °C and they were related to temperature in all treatments. Cell density showed negative correlation with nitrate at temperatures ≥23 °C, and with orthophosphate 27 °C, furthermore, these correlations promote the toxin production (0.05-0.45 fmol STX cell-1); beyond that nitrite at high temperature seems to promote toxin production, which has not been sufficiently documented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalba Alonso-Rodríguez
- Unidad Académica Mazatlán, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Joel Montes Camarena s/n, Mazatlán, Sinaloa 82040, Mexico.
| | - Jorge Gerardo Pichardo-Velarde
- Facultad de Ciencias del Mar (FACIMAR), Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa (UAS), Paseo Claussen S/N, Centro, Mazatlán, Sinaloa 82000, Mexico
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Bui QTN, Pradhan B, Kim HS, Ki JS. Environmental Factors Modulate Saxitoxins (STXs) Production in Toxic Dinoflagellate Alexandrium: An Updated Review of STXs and Synthesis Gene Aspects. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:210. [PMID: 38787062 PMCID: PMC11125744 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16050210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium is known to form harmful algal blooms (HABs) and produces saxitoxin (STX) and its derivatives (STXs) that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) in humans. Cell growth and cellular metabolism are affected by environmental conditions, including nutrients, temperature, light, and the salinity of aquatic systems. Abiotic factors not only engage in photosynthesis, but also modulate the production of toxic secondary metabolites, such as STXs, in dinoflagellates. STXs production is influenced by a variety of abiotic factors; however, the relationship between the regulation of these abiotic variables and STXs accumulation seems not to be consistent, and sometimes it is controversial. Few studies have suggested that abiotic factors may influence toxicity and STXs-biosynthesis gene (sxt) regulation in toxic Alexandrium, particularly in A. catenella, A. minutum, and A. pacificum. Hence, in this review, we focused on STXs production in toxic Alexandrium with respect to the major abiotic factors, such as temperature, salinity, nutrients, and light intensity. This review informs future research on more sxt genes involved in STXs production in relation to the abiotic factors in toxic dinoflagellates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quynh Thi Nhu Bui
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Republic of Korea; (Q.T.N.B.); (H.-S.K.)
| | - Biswajita Pradhan
- Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Republic of Korea;
- Department of Botany, Model Degree College, Rayagada 765017, Odisha, India
| | - Han-Sol Kim
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Republic of Korea; (Q.T.N.B.); (H.-S.K.)
| | - Jang-Seu Ki
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Republic of Korea; (Q.T.N.B.); (H.-S.K.)
- Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Republic of Korea;
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Bui QTN, Kim HS, Ki JS. Polyphyletic origin of saxitoxin biosynthesis genes in the marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium revealed by comparative transcriptomics. HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 134:102620. [PMID: 38705616 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2024.102620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
The marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium is known to form harmful algal blooms, and at least 14 species within the genus can produce saxitoxins (STXs). STX biosynthesis genes (sxt) are individually revealed in toxic dinoflagellates; however, the evolutionary history remains controversial. Herein, we determined the transcriptome sequences of toxic Alexandrium (A. catenella and A. pacificum) and non-toxic Alexandrium (A. fraterculus and A. fragae) and characterized their sxt by focusing on evolutionary events and STX production. Comparative transcriptome analysis revealed higher homology of the sxt in toxic Alexandrium than in non-toxic species. Notably, non-toxic Alexandrium spp. were found to have lost two sxt core genes, namely sxtA4 and sxtG. Expression levels of 28 transcripts related to eight sxt core genes showed that sxtA, sxtG, and sxtI were relatively high (>1.5) in the toxic group compared to the non-toxic group. In contrast, the non-toxic group showed high expression levels in sxtU (1.9) and sxtD (1.7). Phylogenetic tree comparisons revealed distinct evolutionary patterns between 28S rDNA and sxtA, sxtB, sxtI, sxtD, and sxtU. However, similar topology was observed between 28S rDNA, sxtS, and sxtH/T. In the sxtB and sxtI phylogeny trees, toxic Alexandrium and cyanobacteria were clustered together, separating from non-toxic species. These suggest that Alexandrium may acquire sxt genes independently via horizontal gene transfer from toxic cyanobacteria and other multiple sources, demonstrating monocistronic transcripts of sxt in dinoflagellates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quynh Thi Nhu Bui
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, South Korea
| | - Han-Sol Kim
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, South Korea
| | - Jang-Seu Ki
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, South Korea.
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Kim HS, Kim T, Park J, Park TG, Ki JS. Development of saxitoxin biosynthesis gene sxtB-targeted qPCR assay for the quantification of toxic dinoflagellates Alexandrium catenella (group I) and A. pacificum (group IV) occurring in the Korean coast. HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 134:102603. [PMID: 38705609 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2024.102603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
Toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium can produce saxitoxins (STXs) and cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), and thus they are monitored for environmental safety management. Microscopic discrimination of dinoflagellates is difficult to distinguish between toxic and non-toxic species due to their similar morphology. Meanwhile, an alternative quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay is sensitive, rapid, and cost-effective for harmful species monitoring. Herein, we developed a novel qPCR assay to detect the STXs biosynthesis gene sxtB of Alexandrium catenella and A. pacificum, the leading cause of PSP outbreaks in Asian coasts and worldwide. The newly designed sxtB TaqMan probes target the species without any positive signal in other relative dinoflagellates. Deming regression analysis revealed that the sxtB copy number of A. catenella and A. pacificum was 3.6 and 4.1 copies per cell, respectively. During the blooming periods (April 13th-14th, 2020), only A. catenella cells were detected through the qPCR assay, ranging from 5.0 × 10 to 2.5 × 104 eq cells L-1. In addition, sxtB qPCR quantified more accurately compared to large subunit (LSU) rRNA targeting qPCR assay that overestimate cell density. Besides, the sensitivity of sxtB was higher compared to the microscope when the species were rarely present (5.0 × 102 cells L-1). These suggest that the sxtB qPCR assay can be applied to toxic Alexandrium monitoring in the Korean coast, even in the early stage of bloomings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han-Sol Kim
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Korea
| | - Taehee Kim
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Korea
| | - Jaeyeon Park
- Environment & Resource Convergence Center, Advanced Institute of Convergence Technologies, Suwon 16229, Korea
| | - Tae Gyu Park
- National Institute of Fisheries Science (NIFS), Busan 46083, Korea
| | - Jang-Seu Ki
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Korea.
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Montuori E, De Luca D, Penna A, Stalberga D, Lauritano C. Alexandrium spp.: From Toxicity to Potential Biotechnological Benefits. Mar Drugs 2023; 22:31. [PMID: 38248656 PMCID: PMC10821459 DOI: 10.3390/md22010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Many dinoflagellates of the genus Alexandrium are well known for being responsible for harmful algal blooms (HABs), producing potent toxins that cause damages to other marine organisms, aquaculture, fishery, tourism, as well as induce human intoxications and even death after consumption of contaminated shellfish or fish. In this review, we summarize potential bioprospecting associated to the genus Alexandrium, including which Alexandrium spp. produce metabolites with anticancer, antimicrobial, antiviral, as well as anti-Alzheimer applications. When available, we report their mechanisms of action and targets. We also discuss recent progress on the identification of secondary metabolites with biological properties favorable to human health and aquaculture. Altogether, this information highlights the importance of studying which culturing conditions induce the activation of enzymatic pathways responsible for the synthesis of bioactive metabolites. It also suggests considering and comparing clones collected in different locations for toxin monitoring and marine bioprospecting. This review can be of interest not only for the scientific community, but also for the entire population and industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Montuori
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale F. Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy;
- Department of Ecosustainable Marine Biotechnology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Via Acton 55, 80133 Napoli, Italy
| | - Daniele De Luca
- Research Infrastructure for Marine Biological Resources Department, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121 Napoli, Italy;
| | - Antonella Penna
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino, Campus E. Mattei, 61029 Urbino, Italy;
| | - Darta Stalberga
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Linköping University, SE-58183 Linköping, Sweden;
| | - Chiara Lauritano
- Department of Ecosustainable Marine Biotechnology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Via Acton 55, 80133 Napoli, Italy
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