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Wang Z, Leung KMY, Sung YH, Dudgeon D, Qiu JW. Recovery of tropical marine benthos after a trawl ban demonstrates linkage between abiotic and biotic changes. Commun Biol 2021; 4:212. [PMID: 33594207 PMCID: PMC7887210 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-01732-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Bottom trawling, which is highly detrimental to seabed habitats, has been banned in some jurisdictions to mitigate the problems of habitat destruction and overfishing. However, most reports of ecosystem responses to trawling impacts originate from temperate latitudes, focusing on commercial species, and recovery of invertebrate macrobenthos from trawl ban has hardly ever been studied in the tropics. In Hong Kong (lat. 22.4°N), a history of intensive trawling with various types of gears has long degraded coastal ecosystems. To facilitate the recovery of fisheries resources and associated benthic ecosystems, the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region implemented a territory-wide trawl ban on December 31, 2012. Comparison of surveys conducted in June 2012 (before the trawl ban) and June 2015 (2.5 years after the ban) revealed higher organic contents in sediment and lower suspended-solid loads in water column, as well as a significant increase in site-based abundance, species richness, functional diversity and among-site similarity of macrobenthos after the trawl ban. Our results suggest that the imposition of a trawl ban can be an effective measure for biodiversity conservation in tropical coastal waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Wang
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.,Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Kenneth M Y Leung
- Division of Ecology and Biodiversity, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China. .,The Swire Institute of Marine Science, The University of Hong Kong, Cape D'Aguilar, Shek O, Hong Kong, China. .,State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution and Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Yik-Hei Sung
- Science Unit, Lingnan University, Tuen Mun, Hong Kong, China
| | - David Dudgeon
- Division of Ecology and Biodiversity, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jian-Wen Qiu
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China. .,Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou, China.
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Kwan BKY, Cheung SG, Chan AKY, Shin PKS. Trophic and growth baseline of dominant subtidal gastropods in contrasting subtropical marine environments. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2018; 127:396-405. [PMID: 29475677 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 12/09/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Using 13C/12C, 15N/14N and 18O/16O isotopes, the trophic relationship and growth estimation were analyzed in gastropods Nassarius siquijorensis, Murex trapa and Turritella bacillum and their potential food sources and predators in summer and winter from estuarine and oceanic environments in subtropical Hong Kong. Results of δ13C and δ15N values and isotopic mixing model revealed N. siquijorensis and M. trapa were one trophic level higher than T. bacillum, in which its main food source was particulate organic matter (POM) whereas N. siquijorensis largely consumed POM and polychaetes and M. trapa also preyed on other gastropods. Crabs were the major predator of gastropods. Organisms collected from oceanic waters were more 13C enriched than from estuarine waters, reflecting different carbon food sources from marine or terrestrial origin. The δ18O profile from shell carbonate suggested these gastropods were one to two years old. T. bacillum exhibited faster summer growth than the other two species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Billy K Y Kwan
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Marine Biodiversity Conservation, Qinzhou University, China; College of Ocean, Qinzhou University, China; Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, China
| | - S G Cheung
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, China; State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, China
| | - Alice K Y Chan
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, China
| | - Paul K S Shin
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, China; State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, China.
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Wang Z, Leung KMY, Li X, Zhang T, Qiu JW. Macrobenthic communities in Hong Kong waters: Comparison between 2001 and 2012 and potential link to pollution control. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2017; 124:694-700. [PMID: 28442202 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Macrobenthic communities in 2001 and 2012 were compared across the marine environment of Hong Kong based on sediment grab samples collected from 28 stations. CLUSTER analysis showed in both surveys that the stations could be divided into four groups at 20% faunal similarity. However, there were notable changes in the macrobenthic community structure between 2001 and 2012 in three focal areas of pollution control (i.e., Victoria Harbour, Deep Bay and Tolo Harbour). The potential link between macrobenthos and pollution abatement measures, and the contributions of environmental conditions to the differential responsiveness of macrobenthos were explored. Notably, a reduction in nutrient input to the eastern part of Victoria Harbour might have led to recovery of benthic communities therein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Wang
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Kenneth M Y Leung
- The Swire Institute of Marine Science, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xinzheng Li
- Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China; Laboratory of Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, 1 Wenhai Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Tong Zhang
- Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jian-Wen Qiu
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution (SKLMP), City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
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Chan AKY, Xu WZ, Liu XS, Cheung SG, Shin PKS. Sediment characteristics and benthic ecological status in contrasting marine environments of subtropical Hong Kong. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2016; 103:360-370. [PMID: 26749224 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2015] [Revised: 12/12/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Sediment characteristics and benthic communities on a finer sampling scale in four contrasting environments in subtropical Hong Kong were analyzed in summer and winter 2012. In two harbour habitats which suffered from historic sewage pollution or hypoxic events, organic carbon, nutrient and trace metal content in the sediment were significantly higher than that in an offshore area and a marine reserve. The relatively low organic and nutrient content in the offshore habitat could be resulted from enhanced resuspension of such materials from the seabed owing to intense water mixing and disturbance caused by bottom trawling. The biotic indices AMBI and M-AMBI were shown to be useful in assessing the benthic ecological status of these habitats. Such indices can also be more sensitive than sediment physico-chemical parameters in differentiating the response of macrofauna to seasonal changes in the benthic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice K Y Chan
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Wen-Zhe Xu
- College of Marine Science and Engineering, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, China
| | - Xiao-Shou Liu
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, China
| | - Siu Gin Cheung
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Paul K S Shin
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
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Xu WZ, Cheung SG, Shin PKS. Structure and taxonomic composition of free-living nematode and macrofaunal assemblages in a eutrophic subtropical harbour, Hong Kong. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2014; 85:764-773. [PMID: 24467853 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2013] [Revised: 12/24/2013] [Accepted: 01/07/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The spatial and seasonal taxonomic composition patterns of macrofauna and nematodes in a eutrophic subtropical harbour, previously suffered from sewage pollution, were studied in relation to a number of sediment parameters. In the polluted, inner-harbour area, levels of organic contents and heavy metals were high, whereas species number, abundance and diversity of nematodes and macrofauna were the lowest in comparison to the cleaner, outer-harbour area. Different taxonomic composition patterns of nematodes and macrofaunal assemblages were found between inner-harbour and outer-harbour area, which was highly correlated with sediment nutrient levels. Different responses of macrofaunal and nematode communities to sewage pollution suggested that macrofauna might be more tolerant than nematodes to eutrophic conditions due to their ability to modify the sediment. The present findings indicated the usefulness of studying both nematode and macrofaunal communities, in order to reveal different aspects of the benthic ecosystems in response to organic enrichment.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Z Xu
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - S G Cheung
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Paul K S Shin
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
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Chen Y, Cheung SG, Shin PKS. A baseline study of benthic community associated with Amphioxus Sand in subtropical Hong Kong. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2013; 72:274-280. [PMID: 23622836 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2013] [Accepted: 03/15/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
An annual investigation on the seasonal changes of benthic community structure associated with Amphioxus Sand was conducted at two sites in the eastern waters of subtropical Hong Kong, where three species of amphioxus, Branchiostoma belcheri, B. japonicum and B. malayanum coexist. A total of 84 species and 4169 individuals were recorded at Tai Long Wan, whereas a total of 87 species and 3915 individuals were recorded at Pak Lap Wan. Benthic polychaetes were dominant, including high abundance of Onuphis eremita and Prionospio malmgreni. Results of cluster analysis showed significant community structures between the two areas because of difference in sediment granulometry. However, temporal changes within these Amphioxus Sand communities were minimal. In general, the Amphioxus Sand communities in Hong Kong showed higher species richness of Polychaeta as compared with similar studies elsewhere, possibly implying an increased level of organic pollution in Hong Kong waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Chen
- Department of Biology and Chemistry and State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
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Fleddum A, Cheung SG, Hodgson P, Shin PKS. Impact of hypoxia on the structure and function of benthic epifauna in Tolo Harbour, Hong Kong. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2011; 63:221-229. [PMID: 21481897 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2010] [Revised: 03/15/2011] [Accepted: 03/16/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
In Tolo Harbour, Hong Kong, where hypoxia occurs periodically, a large amount of benthic epifauna was found to be absent in the summer but become abundant again in the winter. This observation may indicate that some species are sensitive in detecting low dissolved oxygen (DO) levels and are able to escape from the harbour to more oxygenated, open waters when conditions deteriorate and return when DO levels are improved. Analysis of biological traits of these animals showed that 58% of the categories showed significant differences between the community structure in summer and winter. The significant biological traits of the few species, which remained in the harbour under the summer's hypoxic conditions suggested adaptation rather than opportunism to the low DO levels. Our data also showed that trawling can increase DO at the bottom and may benefit the less sensitive species that remained in the habitat during the summer.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Fleddum
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
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Liu XS, Xu WZ, Cheung SG, Shin PKS. Subtropical meiobenthic nematode communities in Victoria Harbour, Hong Kong. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2008; 56:1491-1497. [PMID: 18508092 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2008] [Revised: 04/12/2008] [Accepted: 04/15/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Shou Liu
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
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Gao QF, Shin PKS, Xu WZ, Cheung SG. Amelioration of marine farming impact on the benthic environment using artificial reefs as biofilters. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2008; 57:652-661. [PMID: 18381220 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2007] [Revised: 01/09/2008] [Accepted: 02/21/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
An in situ monitoring of the sediment characteristics and macrobenthic communities was undertaken at a marine fish culture site in subtropical waters of Hong Kong before and after the deployment of biofilters which were made of cement concrete artificial reef (AR) structures. According to the distance to the boundary of the fish cages, 6 points were selected as sampling stations: 2 at the fish cages, 2 near the boundary of the fish culture area, and 2 reference sites further away from the culture area. Bimonthly sediment samples were collected for analysis of silt-clay fraction (SCF), moisture content (MC), total organic carbon (TOC), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) and total phosphorus (TP). The macrobenthos (>0.5mm) present in the sediment were sorted, identified and enumerated. TOC, TKN and TP levels at the fish cage stations were consistently higher than those at the reference stations over the 1-year pre-AR and 2-year post-AR deployment monitoring period. The diversity of macrofauna was significantly reduced at the fish cage stations relative to the reference sites. The intermediary stations near the fish culture area showed a transitional state of disturbance. Over the 2-year post-AR deployment period, TOC, TKN and TP showed a decreasing trend at the fish cage and intermediary stations. More diverse macrofaunal communities were recorded at the fish cage stations, with species diversity H'increasing from 0-1 at the beginning of the AR deployment to H'>2 at the end of the study. The present results demonstrated that artificial reefs can improve the benthic abiotic environment and biotic conditions beneath fish rafts which are deteriorated due to farming activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin-Feng Gao
- College of Fisheries, Ocean University of China, 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao City, Shandong Province 266003, China
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Cheung SG, Lam NWY, Wu RSS, Shin PKS. Spatio-temporal changes of marine macrobenthic community in sub-tropical waters upon recovery from eutrophication. II. Life-history traits and feeding guilds of polychaete community. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2008; 56:297-307. [PMID: 18061624 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2007] [Revised: 10/11/2007] [Accepted: 10/19/2007] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A two-year study was conducted in the vicinity of a harbour in sub-tropical Hong Kong, to examine the progress of recovery of macrobenthic community, based on analyses of both life-history traits and trophic guilds of polychaetes, upon cessation of organic pollution caused by sewage discharge. Seventy seven out of 83 species collected were classified under four ecological groups based on the life-history traits and sensitivity to organic gradients. The mean ATZI marine biotic index (AMBI) derived from these ecological groups showed spatial difference among the five sampling locations. In particular, the presence of different percentages of polychaete species from Groups III (unbalanced community) and IV (polluted community) suggested the presence of pollution stress in certain degree at all sampling locations. However, no significant temporal changes were noted over the study period. From all polychaete species identified, they were classified into 13 feeding guilds. The mean diversity of these feeding guilds at most of the sampling locations was significantly higher than that at one of the inside-harbour locations. The composition of feeding guilds was also significantly different spatially. At one of the inside-harbour locations, the dominant feeding guilds were motile/discretely motile surface deposit feeders with tentaculates or unarmed pharynx, and motile omnivores with jawed pharynx in the first year of study, but were replaced by motile, jawed carnivores in the second year of study. The increased proportion of carnivores over the study period can be seen as a sign of recovery in the community structure since abundance of predators is commonly higher in habitats with better environmental quality. The implications of using life-history traits and feeding guild analyses for benthic community are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- S G Cheung
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
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Shin PKS, Lam NWY, Wu RSS, Qian PY, Cheung SG. Spatio-temporal changes of marine macrobenthic community in sub-tropical waters upon recovery from eutrophication. I. Sediment quality and community structure. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2008; 56:282-296. [PMID: 18061627 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2007] [Revised: 10/21/2007] [Accepted: 10/23/2007] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A two-year study was conducted in the vicinity of a harbour in sub-tropical Hong Kong, to examine the progress of improvement in sediment quality and recovery of macrobenthic community upon cessation of organic pollution caused by sewage discharge. Median sediment particle diameter (Mdphi) and levels of total organic carbon (TOC), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), ammonia-nitrogen (NH(3)-N) and total phosphorus (TP), as well as macrobenthic species composition and abundance were determined bi-monthly at three inside-harbour and two outside-harbour locations. At the two inside-harbour locations, significantly higher levels of TOC, TKN, NH(3)-N and TP in sediments were observed than the outside-harbour locations. However, no significant temporal change of nutrient levels was detected at all sampling locations during the two-year study, except a significant decrease in TKN and NH(3)-N levels at one outside-harbour location and a decline in NH(3)-N content at another outside-harbour location. Spatially, the highest in mean total species number, individual number, species diversity H' and lowest evenness J was found at one outside-harbour location, whereas the other four locations had relatively similar values. H' was negatively correlated with TOC, TKN, NH(3)-N and TP content in sediments while J was positively correlated with MDphi. Across the study period, the patterns of macrobenthic community were significantly different among all samplings and that the spatial difference of benthic community was best correlated with MDphi, TOC, TKN and water depth. A weak sign of recovery in macrobenthic community structure was detected at inside-harbour locations, with replacement of opportunistic by ubiquitous species over the two-year study. The slow recovery of macrobenthic community was related to sediment characteristics. Results of a larval settlement bioassay using the polychaete Capitella sp. I also demonstrated that the inside-harbour sediments were still unfavourable for colonization and larval settlement of species sensitive to pollution. The slow biodegradation of the organic pollutants and continuous presence of heavy metals in the sediment may hinder settlement and colonization of benthic animals. However, increases of H' and J were observed in a longer time scale when comparing the present data with those obtained four years ago. This suggested that a detectable recovery of benthic community in the harbour may take at least three years and a complete recovery may even take longer duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- P K S Shin
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
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Bigot L, Conand C, Amouroux JM, Frouin P, Bruggemann H, Grémare A. Effects of industrial outfalls on tropical macrobenthic sediment communities in Reunion Island (Southwest Indian Ocean). MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2006; 52:865-80. [PMID: 16631815 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2005.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2005] [Revised: 11/13/2005] [Accepted: 11/16/2005] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Temporal changes in the composition of soft bottom macrobenthic assemblages at Reunion Island (Southwest Indian Ocean) were studied in the context of a long-term environmental monitoring programme studying the impacts of effluents of industrial sugar cane refineries that are transferred to shallow and deep coastal environments by different pathways: surface discharge and deep underground injection. Seven stations (between 20 and 160 m depth) were surveyed between 1994 and 2003 on the industrial zone. One additional station was surveyed on a reference site. Spatio-temporal changes in the composition of macrobenthic communities were assessed using several diversity indices, ABC curves, MDS and associated ANOSIM tests and biotic indices. Among the 171 taxa recorded, polychaetes were dominant (89 species), followed by crustaceans and molluscs. The analysis of spatial changes in the composition of macrobenthos showed the existence of distinct benthic communities along the depth gradient. Temporal changes in macrobenthos composition were most prominent at the shallowest station. They mainly corresponded to the decline of several initially dominant taxa and the increase of the Eunicid polychaete Diopatra cuprea. This station further showed increasing macrofaunal abundance, biomass and sediment organic content over time, concomitant with decreasing sediment grain sizes. In deeper environments, temporal changes were much smaller. Macrofaunal abundance and species richness increased progressively, suggesting a moderate impact on benthic ecosystems resulting from slight enrichments due to effluents rich in organic matter. Our results highlight an original response to disturbance pattern involving opportunistic Eunicidae species (D. cuprea) not previously described. Moreover, they allow for the comparison of the impact on macrofauna caused by industrial effluents exported by two distinct and different pathways in a tropical coastal high-energy marine environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Bigot
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie marine (ECOMAR), Université de La Réunion, BP 7151, 97715 Saint-Denis, La Réunion, France.
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