Microparticles and microplastics contamination in African table salts

Exploring the toxicology, socio-ecological impacts and biodegradation of microplastics in Africa: Potentials for resource conservation

Achieving upcycling and circularity in the microplastic economy predominantly depends on collecting and sorting plastic waste from the source to the end-user for resource conservation. Microplastics, whether from packaging or non-packaging materials, pose a significant environmental challenge as they are often not prioritized for collection or recycling initiatives. The presence of additives impedes the quality of plastic recyclates and the persistence of microplastics as shredded resultants remain a threat to the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem and its biodiversity. Despite the increasing global research on microplastics, the success of plastic and microplastic waste management in Africa is yet to be fully attained. Considering the improper disposal, limited recycling and upcycling intervention, lack of policy, and strict laws against plastic waste management defaulters, the ecosystems in Africa remain immensely impacted by several socio-ecological factors leading to the loss of aquatic organisms through reducing fertility and increasing stress. As a ripple consequence, the disruption of economic activities, toxic effects on animal/human health, and climate crisis are among their impact. This review therefore provides comprehensive detail of microplastic production and challenges in Africa, the toxicology concerns, socio-ecological issues associated with microplastic waste management, and insight into approaches to mitigate plastic pollution through recycling, upcycling, bioprocessing and their biodegradation with social insects and microorganisms which may form the basis for adoption by policymakers and researchers, thereby minimizing the consequences of plastic pollution in Africa.

Discovery and solution for microplastics: New risk carriers in food

Microplastics (MPs), as a kind of plastic particles with an equal volume size of less than 5 mm, similar to PM2.5 in the air, are causing severe contamination issues in food. Along with the food chain accumulation, they have been confirmed to appear in daily foods and cause serious health risks to the organisms. However, there were no unifying national and local policies on separating, extracting, and detecting MPs in food, which is an essential and imperative early-warning strategy. This review carefully and comprehensively summarized the validated contaminated food, physical and chemical characteristics, extraction methods, traditional and rapid detection techniques, as well as degradation methods of MPs. We thoroughly analyzed the differences among these traditional strategies, and innovatively generalized the existing rapid detection techniques for MPs. Finally, the shortcomings of existing research were discussed, and the possibility of novel rapid and intelligent detection techniques for MPs in food was proposed.

From sea to table: Assessing microplastic contamination in local and non-local salt in Bali, Indonesia

Microplastic contamination in table salt has emerged as a significant environmental and public health concern, particularly in regions like Bali, Indonesia, where salt is predominantly produced through seawater crystallization This study aimed to quantify and characterize microplastics in local and non-local table salts and estimate the potential microplastic intake. A total of 20 salt brands (10 local, 10 non-local) were collected and analyzed using density separation, stereomicroscopy, and FTIR spectroscopy. The results indicated that all salt samples contained microplastics, with an average concentration of 173 ± 119 particles/kg. Non-local salts exhibited higher contamination levels (211 ± 134 particles/kg) compared to local salts (135 ± 88 particles/kg). Fragments were the most prevalent microplastic type (55%), followed by fibers (44%), and smaller particles (≤500 μm) were the most common in size. A total of 13 polymer types were identified in the microplastic samples, with chlorobutyl (33%) and ethylene propylene rubber (29%) being the most dominant. Based on salt consumption rates, it was estimated that Bali residents ingest 1 microplastic particles per day, translating to an annual intake of 316-425 particles. These findings highlight the widespread nature of microplastic contamination in consumable salt and suggest potential health risks from the ingestion of microplastics, which may carry harmful pollutants. The study emphasizes the need for improved salt production practices, stricter pollution controls, and further research into the health implications of microplastic ingestion.

From source to distribution channel: A baseline study of microplastic occurrence in drinking water in Ogun State, Nigeria

Microplastics (MPs) are emerging contaminants known to have contaminated not only surface and groundwater but also drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) and tap water. Little is known about the occurrence of MPs in DWTPs in Africa, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria. To address this knowledge gap, this study investigated the prevalence and estimated daily intake of MPs in raw water, DWTPs, and tap water in a semi-urban area in Ogun State, Nigeria. Using Rose Bengal staining and optical microscopy, MPs in water samples were identified and characterised using standard methods. The abundances of MPs were 16.13 ± 3.83 particles/L in raw water, 10.74 ± 3.76 particles/L in treated water, and 12.43 ± 3.92 particles/L in tap water. Most of the MPs found in the water samples were classified as fibres, followed by fragments, with a size of < 1 mm. This study showed that the drinking water treatment plant reduced microplastics from raw water by 40%, however, there was an increase in the abundance of MPs in tap water. Residents estimated daily consumption of MPs from tap water varied between 0.31 and 0.44 particles for adults and between 1.2 and 1.69 particles for children. This study addresses a critical gap in understanding microplastic pollution in the water distribution systems and DWTPs. The results also indicated that MPs were not effectively removed, requiring a more sophisticated treatment method to lower human exposure to MPs through drinking water from DWTPs.

Exploring Innovative Approaches for the Analysis of Micro- and Nanoplastics: Breakthroughs in (Bio)Sensing Techniques

Plastic pollution, particularly from microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs), has become a critical environmental and health concern due to their widespread distribution, persistence, and potential toxicity. MPs and NPs originate from primary sources, such as cosmetic microspheres or synthetic fibers, and secondary fragmentation of larger plastics through environmental degradation. These particles, typically less than 5 mm, are found globally, from deep seabeds to human tissues, and are known to adsorb and release harmful pollutants, exacerbating ecological and health risks. Effective detection and quantification of MPs and NPs are essential for understanding and mitigating their impacts. Current analytical methods include physical and chemical techniques. Physical methods, such as optical and electron microscopy, provide morphological details but often lack specificity and are time-intensive. Chemical analyses, such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy, offer molecular specificity but face challenges with smaller particle sizes and complex matrices. Thermal analytical methods, including pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), provide compositional insights but are destructive and limited in morphological analysis. Emerging (bio)sensing technologies show promise in addressing these challenges. Electrochemical biosensors offer cost-effective, portable, and sensitive platforms, leveraging principles such as voltammetry and impedance to detect MPs and their adsorbed pollutants. Plasmonic techniques, including surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), provide high sensitivity and specificity through nanostructure-enhanced detection. Fluorescent biosensors utilizing microbial or enzymatic elements enable the real-time monitoring of plastic degradation products, such as terephthalic acid from polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Advancements in these innovative approaches pave the way for more accurate, scalable, and environmentally compatible detection solutions, contributing to improved monitoring and remediation strategies. This review highlights the potential of biosensors as advanced analytical methods, including a section on prospects that address the challenges that could lead to significant advancements in environmental monitoring, highlighting the necessity of testing the new sensing developments under real conditions (composition/matrix of the samples), which are often overlooked, as well as the study of peptides as a novel recognition element in microplastic sensing.

A systematic review and quality assessment of estimated daily intake of microplastics through food

Plastic waste enters the oceans and soil and is consumed by organisms and humans. Some of the ingested microplastics may remain in the human body and cause toxicity. We conducted a systematic review to estimate the extent to which humans are exposed to microplastics through consumption and performed a quality assessment of research results. We searched for studies published up to December 2023 and included studies that reported on the characteristics and estimated intake of microplastics. The quality assessment tool reported in previous studies was used for food and drinking water studies. We included 76 studies in the analysis, and the types of foods were classified into seven categories: seafood, drinking water, table salt, fruits and vegetables, beverages, condiments, and meat. The estimated daily intake of microplastics via food was 0.0002-1,531,524 MP/day, with the highest value in bottled water. The quality of food and drinking water studies was evaluated using a quantitative tool to assess reliability. The quality of food studies was 11.50 out of 20 points and the quality of drinking water studies was 11.16 out of 19 points. These results indicate that the closer the score is to the maximum, the more reliable the research findings. The quantitative assessment can be used as an indicator for evaluating the risks of microplastics and can help reduce biases that may occur during the research process. This study confirmed microplastics in foods and human exposure to up to one million microplastics daily. Our study emphasizes the potential for microplastic exposure through food intake and subsequent accumulation in the human body; therefore, efforts are needed to reduce exposure to microplastics in daily life.

The alarming link between environmental microplastics and health hazards with special emphasis on cancer

Microplastic contamination is a burgeoning environmental issue that poses serious threats to animal and human health. Microplastics enter the human body through nasal, dermal, and oral routes to contaminate multiple organs. Studies have advocated the existence of microplastics in human breast milk, sputum, faeces, and blood. Microplastics can find their ways to the sub-cellular moiety via active and passive approaches. At cellular level, microplastics follow clathrin and caveolae-dependent pathways to invade the sub-cellular environment. These environmental contaminants modulate the epigenetic control of gene expression, status of inflammatory mediators, redox homeostasis, cell-cycle proteins, and mimic the endocrine mediators like estrogen and androgen to fuel carcinogenesis. Furthermore, epidemiological studies have suggested potential links between the exposure to microplastics and the onset of various chronic diseases. Microplastics trigger uncontrolled cell proliferation and ensue tissue growth leading to various cancers affecting the lungs, blood, breasts, prostate, and ovaries. Additionally, such contamination can potentially affect sub-cellular signaling and injure multiple organs. In essence, numerous reports have claimed microplastic-induced toxicity and tumorigenesis in human and model animals. Nonetheless, the underlying molecular mechanism is still elusive and warrants further investigations. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of microplastics, covering their sources, chemistry, human exposure routes, toxicity, and carcinogenic potential at the molecular level.

A review of the ecotoxicological status of microplastic pollution in African freshwater systems

Microplastics (MPs) have found extensive application globally due to their low cost, flexibility and light weight. Microplastic pollution is a growing environmental concern that poses significant threats to aquatic ecosystems worldwide, including African freshwater systems. Nevertheless, although Africa houses some of the deepest and largest freshwater rivers and lakes in the world such as Lake Tanganyika and Victoria, River Congo and the Nile, there is limited information available regarding the presence of MPs in these inland waters. Selected published data on MPs in African freshwater systems, including sediments, biota, rivers, and lakes, were incorporated in this review. The study discovered that the sampling technique employed has a major impact on the morphological characteristics and abundance of MPs in African freshwater systems. Fibers and fragments were the most common shapes; black, white, and transparent were the most prevalent colors; and polyethene terephthalate, polystyrene, and polypropylene were the frequently dominant polymers. As the distance between the sampling sites increased geographically, the polymer similarities declined. MPs have been found to translocate into body cells and tissues where they are capable of causing genetic mutations, cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and neurotoxicity. In Africa, MPs are poorly managed and monitored, and there has been insufficient research done on the possibility that they could be present in drinking water. Considering the fact that humans in the continent are exposed to freshwater and aquatic organisms, the risk assessment routes are currently unvalidated, therefore it was recommended that African nations should strengthen their capacity for plastic management and environmental monitoring. This review provides up to date information on the occurrence, prevalence, ecotoxicity and management of MPs across African freshwater systems.

Microplastics, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, and Heavy Metals in Milk: Analyses and Induced Health Risk Assessment

The current study aims to develop isolation protocols for several contaminants of emerging concern (i.e., microplastics (MPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heavy metals (HMs)) from different commercial brands and raw milk samples and also to quantify and characterize the risks of these contaminants pose to human health. The quantification, shape, color, and chemical composition of MPs were achieved using optical microscopy, micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive spectroscopy. Based on the MP dimensions highlighted by the aforementioned techniques, it can be stated that their length ranges between tens of micrometers and a few centimeters; plus, the thickness in some cases reaches more than 15 µm, and the structure of the MPs can be mostly described as a fibriform with a glossy/matte aspect. The polymeric structures identified were polyamides, poly(methyl methacrylate), polyurethane, polyester, and polyethylene. Chemical investigations (PAHs and HMs concentrations) were performed by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, respectively. The pollution load index (1.091-7.676) and daily intake of MPs for adults (0.021-1.061 n·kg-1·d-1) and children (0.089-4.420 n·kg-1·d-1) were calculated. It can be concluded that the presence of MPs in milk supports the hypothesis that microplastics can act as carriers for other contaminants (HMs and PAHs), thus increasing the threat to health.

First-ever study uncovers microplastic contamination in Nepalese table salt

Despite numerous studies on microplastic contamination in table salt worldwide, research focusing on Nepalese table salts is remarkably lacking. This study aims to address this gap by investigating microplastic contamination in salt samples collected from all seven provincial zones of Nepal. Our objective is to comprehensively assess the presence and characteristics of microplastics in salt sold within local markets across the country. Five salt packaging companies utilized by Nepalese consumers were identified. The collected salt samples were digested with Fenton's reagent to extract microplastics, which were then observed under a digital microscope. Using an OMAX stereomicroscope at 30× magnification and an OMAX A3503S digital camera, each microplastic was carefully identified and quantified. FTIR analysis was conducted to identify the polymer types. All tested salt samples (100 %) from both Nepalese and Indian packaging companies contained microplastics. Microplastic abundance exhibits variability among the samples, ranging from 80 to 1040 microplastics per kilogram of salt. The average value stands at 381 ± 219 microplastics per kilogram of salt sample. The distribution of microplastic concentrations within the salt samples reveals that the majority fall within the 301-400 microplastics per kilogram salt range, constituting 33 % of the total samples. Color analysis showed diverse contamination sources, while microplastic shapes included fibers (56 %), films (17 %), fragments (16 %) and pellets (11 %). Polymer type analysis confirmed the presence of polyethylene and polypropylene in tested microplastics. The study estimated that Nepalese individuals ingest an average of 1853 microplastics annually, indicating significant exposure from salt consumption. Surprisingly, factors such as storage conditions, date of salt packaging and thickness of packaging material did not significantly affect microplastic presence in the samples, suspecting manufacturing processes as the primary contributors to contamination. Therefore, the raw materials and purification practices for salt need improvement, as existing methods are insufficient to eliminate microplastics. These findings emphasize the need for further research and mitigation efforts to address microplastic contamination in Nepalese salt and its potential health impacts.

Assessment of Ingested Micro- and Nanoplastic (MNP)-Mediated Genotoxicity in an In Vitro Model of the Small Intestinal Epithelium (SIE)

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) have become ubiquitous contaminants of water and foods, resulting in high levels of human ingestion exposure. MNPs have been found in human blood and multiple tissues, suggesting that they are readily absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and widely distributed. Growing toxicological evidence suggests that ingested MNPs may pose a serious health threat. The potential genotoxicity of MNPs, however, remains largely unknown. In this study, genotoxicity of primary and environmentally relevant secondary MNPs was assessed in a triculture small intestinal epithelium (SIE) model using the CometChip assay. Aqueous suspensions of 25 and 1000 nm carboxylated polystyrene spheres (PS25C and PS1KC), and incinerated polyethylene (PEI PM0.1) were subjected to simulated GIT digestion to create physiologically relevant exposures (digestas), which were applied to the SIE model at final MNP concentrations of 1, 5, and 20 μg/mL for 24 or 48 h. PS25C and PS1KC induced DNA damage in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. To our knowledge, this is one of the first assessment of MNP genotoxicity in an integrated in vitro ingestion platform including simulated GIT digestion and a triculture SIE model. These findings suggest that ingestion of high concentrations of carboxylated PS MNPs could have serious genotoxic consequences in the SIE.

Detection and characterisation of microplastics in tap water from Gauteng, South Africa

This study reports the presence, concentration, and characteristics of microplastics (MPs) in tap water in three suburbs in Gauteng Province in South Africa. Physical characterisation was conducted using stereomicroscopy and scanning electron microscopy following staining of MPs with the Rose Bengal dye. The concentrations of MPs in all samples ranged from 4.7 to 31 particles/L, with a mean of 14 ± 5.6 particles/L. Small-sized (<1 mm) and fibrous-shaped MPs were most abundant in all samples. Fibers accounted for 83.1% of MPs in samples from all the three areas, followed by fragments (12.4%), pellets/beads (3.1%), and films (1.5%), with a minor variation in the distribution of shapes and sizes in samples from each area. Raman microspectroscopy was used for chemical analysis, and five polymers were identified, namely: high-density polyethylene, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate, poly(hexamethylene terephtalamide), and poly(acrylamide-co-acrylic acid). C.I Pigment Red 1, C.I. Solvent Yellow 4, Potassium indigotetrasulphonate, and C.I Pigment Black 7 were the colourants detected. These colourants are carcinogenic and mutagenic and are potentially toxic to humans. The prevalence of MPs in tap water implies their inadequate removal during water treatment. For instance, the presence of poly(AM-co-AA) suggests that drinking water treatment plants may be a potential source of MPs in tap water. Other polymers, e.g., high-density polyethylene may be released from pipes during the transportation of drinking water. The estimated daily consumption of MPs from tap water was 1.2, 0.71, and 0.50 particles/kg.day for children, men, and women, respectively. The findings of this study provide evidence of the presence of MPs in drinking water in South Africa, thus giving some insights into the performance of treatment plants in removing these contaminants and a benchmark for the formulation of standard limits for the amount of MPs in drinking water.

Understanding microplastic pollution: Tracing the footprints and eco-friendly solutions

Microplastics (MPs) pollution has emerged as a critical environmental issue with far-reaching consequences for ecosystems and human health. These are plastic particles measuring <5 mm and are categorized as primary and secondary based on their origin. Primary MPs are used in various products like cosmetics, scrubs, body wash, and toothpaste, while secondary MPs are generated through the degradation of plastic products. These have been detected in seas, rivers, snow, indoor air, and seafood, posing potential risks to human health through the food chain. Detecting and quantifying MPs are essential to understand their distribution and abundance in the environment. Various microscopic (fluorescence microscopy, scanning electron microscopy) and spectroscopy techniques (FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) have been reported to analyse MPs. Despite the challenges in scalable removal methods, biological systems have emerged as promising options for eco-friendly MPs remediation. Algae, bacteria, and fungi have shown the potential to adsorb and degrade MPs in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) offering hope for mitigating this global crisis. This review examines the sources, impacts, detection, and biological removal of MPs, highlighting future directions in this crucial field of environmental conservation. By fostering global collaboration and innovative research a path towards a cleaner and healthier planet for future generations can be promised.

Micro and nano plastics in food: A review on the strategies for identification, isolation, and mitigation through photocatalysis, and health risk assessment

Over the past few years, it has become increasingly evident that microplastic pollutant heavily contaminates water sources, posing a potential threat to both human and wildlife. These plastic pollutants do not get degraded efficiently by natural processes and the existing traditional treatment methods are incapable of fully eradicating them. In this regard, degradation of microplastic contaminants through photocatalytic methods has emerged as a powerful technique. Unfortunately, only a limited number of investigations have been reported in the field of photocatalytic degradation of microplastics. This comprehensive assessment focuses on the detailed analysis of the latest cutting edge engineered technologies aimed at efficiently separating, identifying microplastic contaminants present in food samples and degrading them through photocatalysis. Moreover, detailed information on various instrumental techniques that can be adopted to analyze the isolated micro sized plastic particles has been discussed. The assessment and degradation of these micro contaminants through photocatalytic methods is still in juvenile stage and there are lot of rooms to be explored. The need for profound contemplation on methods to degrade them through photocatalytic approaches as well as their possible health risks to humans motivated us to bring out this review.

"Microplastic seasoning": A study on microplastic contamination of sea salts in Bangladesh

This study investigated microplastics (MPs) in commercial sea salts from Bangladesh. The presence of MPs in the 18 sea salt bands was 100 %, where the mean MPs abundance was 471.67 MPs/kg, ranging between 300 and 670 MPs/kg. The maximum number of MPs in the 300-1500 μm size class was significantly higher than the 1500-3000 μm and 3000-5000 μm size class. The most dominant color was black. Fibers and foams were the dominant shapes. The highest number of MPs was 41 %, obtained from coarse salt grains. Four types of polymers were mainly identified from the analyzed samples: PP, PE, PET, and PA. The mean polymer risk index value among these sea salts was 539 to 1257. The findings of this study can be helpful for consumers, salt industries, and policymakers to be aware of or reduce MP contamination levels in sea salts during production and consumption.

Incidence and exposure to microplastics in table salt present in the Iran market

Plastics and microplastics (MPs) are toxic, pervasive and threatening the biotic and abiotic components of the earth, and they threaten food safety and food security by moving in the food chain. In this study, the amounts and characteristics of 40 table salt samples with different brands, including sea salt (No = 13), rock (No = 13), bulk (No = 8) and non-standard (No = 6), were investigated with a combination of sieving, filtration, observation and FTIR, Micro-Raman and SEM techniques. The results showed that all the salts were contaminated with MPs. In general, the abundance range of detected particles was 700-5470 MPs/kg. The abundance of MPs was higher in counterfeit and non-standard salts (1825 ± 1808 MPs/kg). Investigating the relationship between the effect of the purification process (Kruskal-Wallis Test, P = 0.841), the type of packaging (Kruskal-Wallis Test, P = 0.609), and the type of salt (Kruskal-Wallis Test, P = 0.942), on the abundance of MPs using a comparison test Kruskal-Wallis was not significant. However, the numerical difference was recognizable. The most identified polymer in the salts was cellulose acetate, which probably causes by unmanaged plastic litter in the environment (especially cigarette butts). The dominant form of particles was fragment-shaped, which is the most abundant form of identified MPs in the environment. Both environmental pollution and secondary pollution (during production and packaging), respectively, contribute to the contamination of salts with MPs. The estimated human dietary intake (EDI) and the amount of estimated annual intake (EAI) for different ages in Iran were obtained EDI = 5-59 MPs/capita/day and EAI = 1967-21563 MPs/capita/year. The surface morphology of the particles showed that the MPs were affected by continuous weathering, mechanical fracture and oxidation. MPs are a threat to human health due to the absorption and transmission of dangerous pollutants and their inherent toxicity. Therefore, a solution must be thought of to prevent the contamination of the food chain through salts by MPs, (with protective measures at the salt source, and by improving its production processes.

A systematic review of the impacts of exposure to micro- and nano-plastics on human tissue accumulation and health

Micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) pollution has become a pressing global environmental issue, with growing concerns regarding its impact on human health. However, evidence on the effects of MNPs on human health remains limited. This paper reviews the three routes of human exposure to MNPs, which include ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. It further discusses the potential routes of translocation of MNPs in human lungs, intestines, and skin, analyses the potential impact of MNPs on the homeostasis of human organ systems, and provides an outlook on future research priorities for MNPs in human health. There is growing evidence that MNPs are present in human tissues or fluids. Lab studies, including in vivo animal models and in vitro human-derived cell cultures, revealed that MNPs exposure could negatively affect human health. MNPs exposure could cause oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, disruption of internal barriers like the intestinal, the air-blood and the placental barrier, tissue damage, as well as immune homeostasis imbalance, endocrine disruption, and reproductive and developmental toxicity. Limitedly available epidemiological studies suggest that disorders like lung nodules, asthma, and blood thrombus might be caused or exacerbated by MNPs exposure. However, direct evidence for the effects of MNPs on human health is still scarce, and future research in this area is needed to provide quantitative support for assessing the risk of MNPs to human health.

From oceans to dinner plates: The impact of microplastics on human health

Microplastics, measuring less than 5 mm in diameter, are now found in various environmental media, including soil, water, and air, and have infiltrated the food chain, ultimately becoming a part of the human diet. This study offers a comprehensive examination of the intricate nexus between microplastics and human health, thereby contributing to the existing knowledge on the subject. Sources of microplastics, including microfibers from textiles, personal care products, and wastewater treatment plants, among others, were assessed. The study meticulously examined the diverse routes of microplastic exposure-ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact-offering insights into the associated health risks. Notably, ingestion of microplastics has been linked to gastrointestinal disturbances, endocrine disruption, and the potential transmission of pathogenic bacteria. Inhalation of airborne microplastics emerges as a critical concern, with possible implications for respiratory and cardiovascular health. Dermal contact, although less explored, raises the prospect of skin irritation and allergic reactions. The impacts of COVID-19 on microplastic pollution were also highlighted. Throughout the manuscript, the need for a deeper mechanistic understanding of microplastic interactions with human systems is emphasized, underscoring the urgency for further research and public awareness.

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) and their potential toxicological outcomes: State of science, knowledge gaps and research needs

Plastic waste has been produced at a rapidly growing rate over the past several decades. The environmental impacts of plastic waste on marine and terrestrial ecosystems have been recognized for years. Recently, researchers found that micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs), micron (100 nm - 5 mm) and nanometer (1 - 100 nm) scale particles and fibers produced by degradation and fragmentation of plastic waste in the environment, have become an important emerging environmental and food chain contaminant with uncertain consequences for human health. This review provides a comprehensive summary of recent findings from studies of potential toxicity and adverse health impacts of MNPs in terrestrial mammals, including studies in both in vitro cellular and in vivo mammalian models. Also reviewed here are recently released biomonitoring studies that have characterized the bioaccumulation, biodistribution, and excretion of MNPs in humans. The majority MNPs in the environment to which humans are most likely to be exposed, are of irregular shapes, varied sizes, and mixed compositions, and are defined as secondary MNPs. However, the MNPs used in most toxicity studies to date were commercially available primary MNPs of polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and other polymers. The emerging in vitro and in vivo evidence reviewed here suggests that MNP toxicity and bioactivity are largely determined by MNP particle physico-chemical characteristics, including size, shape, polymer type, and surface properties. For human exposure, MNPs have been identified in human blood, urine, feces, and placenta, which pose potential health risks. The evidence to date suggests that the mechanisms underlying MNP toxicity at the cellular level are primarily driven by oxidative stress. Nonetheless, large knowledge gaps in our understanding of MNP toxicity and the potential health impacts of MNP exposures still exist and much further study is needed to bridge those gaps. This includes human population exposure studies to determine the environmentally relevant MNP polymers and exposure concentrations and durations for toxicity studies, as well as toxicity studies employing environmentally relevant MNPs, with surface chemistries and other physico-chemical properties consistent with MNP particles in the environment. It is especially important to obtain comprehensive toxicological data for these MNPs to understand the range and extent of potential adverse impacts of microplastic pollutants on humans and other organisms.

Improvement of biodegradation of PET microplastics with whole-cell biocatalyst by interface activation reinforcement

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is an important basic polymer, which was used widely in variety of fields. Due to its high crystallinity, compact structure and strong surface hydrophobicity, PET has prominent resistance to biodegradation. In recent years, microplastics, especially polyethylene terephthalate (PET) microplastics, was considered as serious threaten to ecosystems. In this study, alkali-resistant bacteria were used as whole-cell catalysts to try to improve the biodegradation of PET microplastics by increasing the bio-interfacial activity of the polymer substrate. Surfactants were applicated to enhance interfacial activation of enzyme and PET interactions. And an integrated strategy was constructed based on alkali resistant bacteria to catalysis the hydrolysis of PET. The results showed that Tween 20 had the most obvious promoting effect among the four interfacial biocatalysts on biological-chemical combined hydrolysis of PET microplastics with whole-cell biocatalysts in alkaline environment. Obvious etching and fracture were observed on the PET fibre surface after biodegradation in presence of surfactant. The weight loss rate of PET substrate can reach 11.04% after 5 days of biodegradation. Thus, this research provides a promising method for efficient degradation of PET microplastics.

Microplastics in European sea salts - An example of exposure through consumer choice and of interstudy methodological discrepancies

Microplastics are contaminants of emerging concern, not least due to their global presence in marine surface waters. Unsurprisingly, microplastics have been reported in salts harvested from numerous locations. We extracted microplastics from 13 European sea salts through 30% H₂O₂ digestion and filtration over 5-µm filters. Filters were visually inspected at magnifications to x100. A subsample of potential microplastics was subjected to Raman spectroscopy. Particle mass was estimated, and human dose exposure calculated. After blank corrections, median concentrations were 466 ± 152 microplastics kg^-1 ranging from 74 to 1155 items kg^-1. Traditionally harvested salts contained fewer microplastics than most industrially harvested ones (t-test, p < 0.01). Approximately 14 µg of microplastics (< 12 particles) may be absorbed by the human body annually, of which a quarter may derive from a consumer choosing sea salt. We reviewed existing studies, showing that targeting different particle sizes and incomplete filtrations hinder interstudy comparison, indicating the importance of method harmonisation for future studies. Excess salt consumption is detrimental to human health; the hazardousness of ingesting microplastics on the other hand has yet to be shown. A portion of microplastics may enter sea salts through production processes rather than source materials.

Microplastic contamination and risk assessment in table salts: Turkey

In this study, the characterization of microplastics of table salts (n = 36) was determined by FT - IR. Then, individuals' exposure to microplastics from table salt consumption was calculated with a deterministic model, and finally, a risk assessment of table salt was performed using the polymer risk index. On average, 44 ± 26, 38 ± 40, 28 ± 9, and 39 ± 30 microplastics/kg were detected in rock salts (n = 16), lake salts (n = 12), sea salts (n = 8), and all salts (n = 36). Microplastics with 10 different polymer types (CPE, VC-ANc, HDPE, PET, Nylon-6, PVAc, EVA, PP, PS, Polyester), 7 different colors (black, red, colorless, blue, green, brown, white, gray), and 3 different shapes (fiber, granulated, film) were found in table salts. The daily, annual and lifetime (70-year) exposures to microplastics from table salt consumption in 15+-year-old individuals (general) were calculated to be 0.41 microplastic particles/day, 150 microplastic particles/year and 10,424 microplastic particles/70-year, respectively. The average microplastic polymer risk index of all table salts was calculated as 182 ± 144 and the risk level is in the medium. In order to minimize microplastic contamination in table salts, protective measures should be taken at the source of the salt, and production processes should be improved.

Migration of microplastics from plastic packaging into foods and its potential threats on human health

Microplastics from food packaging material have risen in number and dispersion in the aquatic system, the terrestrial environment, and the atmosphere in recent decades. Microplastics are of particular concern due to their long-term durability in the environment, their great potential for releasing plastic monomers and additives/chemicals, and their vector-capacity for adsorbing or collecting other pollutants. Consumption of foods containing migrating monomers can lead to accumulation in the body and the build-up of monomers in the body can trigger cancer. The book chapter focuses the commercial plastic food packaging materials and describes their release mechanisms of microplastics from packaging into foods. To prevent the potential risk of microplastics migrated into food products, the factors influencing microplastic to the food products, e.g., high temperatures, ultraviolet and bacteria, have been discussed. Additionally, as many evidences shows that the microplastic components are toxic and carcinogenic, the potential threats and negative effects on human health have also been highlighted. Moreover, future trends is summarized to reduce the microplastic migration by enhancing public awareness as well as improving waste management.

Detection methods of micro and nanoplastics

Plastics and related contaminants (including microplastics; MPs and nanoplastics; NPs) have become a serious global safety issue due to their overuse in many products and applications and their inadequate management, leading to possible leakage into the environment and eventually to the food chain and humans. There is a growing literature reporting on the occurrence of plastics, (MPs and NPs) in both marine and terrestrial organisms, with many indications about the harmful impact of these contaminants on plants and animals, as well as potential human health risks. The presence of MPs and NPs in many foods and beverages including seafood (especially finfish, crustaceans, bivalves, and cephalopods), fruits, vegetables, milk, wine and beer, meat, and table salts, has become popular research areas in recent years. Detection, identification, and quantification of MPs and NPs have been widely investigated using a wide range of traditional methods, such as visual and optical methods, scanning electron microscopy, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, but these methods are burdened with a number of limitations. In contrast, spectroscopic techniques, especially Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, and other emerging techniques, such as hyperspectral imaging are increasingly being applied due to their potential to enable rapid, non-destructive, and high-throughput analysis. Despite huge research efforts, there is still an overarching need to develop reliable analytical techniques with low cost and high efficiency. Mitigation of plastic pollution requires establishing standard and harmonized methods, adopting holistic approaches, and raising awareness and engaging the public and policymakers. Therefore, this chapter focuses mainly on identification and quantification techniques of MPs and NPs in different food matrices (mostly seafood).

Abundance, characteristics, and spatial-temporal distribution of microplastics in sea salts along the Cox's Bazar coastal area, Bangladesh

Microplastics (MPs), together with microfibers, have emerged as a contaminant of concern all around the globe. MPs have been detected in freshwater, seawater, sediment, and aquatic species among others. As suggested by several recent investigations, sea salts, a daily intake item by humans, are also contaminated by MPs. The current article describes MPs' occurrence, distribution, type, and timeline variation in raw sea salts from Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh. MPs have been detected in every collected salt sample, and quantity varied from 28.53 ± 2.43 to 93.53 ± 4.21 particles per kg, which was about 52.48 ± 1.72 to 67.46 ± 3.81 µg/kg of raw salt. Microfibers were MPs' dominant shape category, and the plastic types were mainly polyester or nylon. Other types of MPs were polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polycarbonate (PC), polyurethane (PU), and polystyrene (PS) in decreasing amounts. The majority of the MPs in the sea salts were in the size range of ˂ 3-1 mm. The total amount of MPs and plastic-type variation due to sampling location (p ˃ 0.05) and because of the time period (p ˃ 0.05) was found insignificant. Acetaldehyde, a volatile toxic substance produced by the degradation of polyester polymer chains, was detected in MPs in the range of 0.37 to 1.72 µg/g by headspace GC-MS analysis. Hence, the sea salts contaminated with MPs pose a public health hazard. Microplastics extraction from sea salts and their characterization.

Microplastics: A Real Global Threat for Environment and Food Safety: A State of the Art Review

Microplastics are small plastic particles that come from the degradation of plastics, ubiquitous in nature and therefore affect both wildlife and humans. They have been detected in many marine species, but also in drinking water and in numerous foods, such as salt, honey and marine organisms. Exposure to microplastics can also occur through inhaled air. Data from animal studies have shown that once absorbed, plastic micro- and nanoparticles can distribute to the liver, spleen, heart, lungs, thymus, reproductive organs, kidneys and even the brain (crosses the blood-brain barrier). In addition, microplastics are transport operators of persistent organic pollutants or heavy metals from invertebrate organisms to other higher trophic levels. After ingestion, the additives and monomers in their composition can interfere with important biological processes in the human body and can cause disruption of the endocrine, immune system; can have a negative impact on mobility, reproduction and development; and can cause carcinogenesis. The pandemic caused by COVID-19 has affected not only human health and national economies but also the environment, due to the large volume of waste in the form of discarded personal protective equipment. The remarkable increase in global use of face masks, which mainly contain polypropylene, and poor waste management have led to worsening microplastic pollution, and the long-term consequences can be extremely devastating if urgent action is not taken.

Microplastics and plastics-associated contaminants in food and beverages; Global trends, concentrations, and human exposure

Microplastics has become a global concern due to their ubiquitous presence which poses unavoidable human exposure risks. Geographical distribution and yearly trends of research on microplastics, food, and beverages do not exist. Thus, no overall account is available regarding the presence of microplastics and plastics-associated contaminants in food and beverages. Hence, this attempt is to review the geographical distribution of studies through a brief bibliometric analysis and the plastics-associated contaminants including plasticizers and microplastics in food and beverages. Estimated microplastic consumption has been listed for the pool of publications reviewed here. Further, this review discusses the ingestion potency of micropollutants associated with microplastics, possible health impacts, and existing challenges. Global trend in research exponentially increased after 2018 and China is leading. Studies on microplastics were limited to a few beverages and food; milk, beer, tea, refreshing drinks, salt, sugar, honey, etc., whereas seafood and drinking water have been extensively studied. Publications on plastic-additives were reported in two ways; migration of plastic-additives from packaging by leaching and the presence of plastic-additives in food and beverages. Bisphenol A and bis(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate were the most frequently reported both in food and beverages. Exposure of packaging material to high temperatures predominantly involves plastic-additive contamination in food and beverages. Microplastics-bound micropollutants can also be ingested through food and beverages; however, a lack of knowledge exists. The complex matrix of food or beverages and the absence of standard procedures for analysis of microplastics and micropollutants exist as challenges. More investigations on the presence of microplastics and plastic-additives in food and beverage are urgent needs to a better assessment of potential human exposure and human health risk.

Nano- and microplastics: a comprehensive review on their exposure routes, translocation, and fate in humans

Contamination of the environment with nano-and microplastic particles (NMPs) and its putative adverse effects on organisms, ecosystems, and human health is gaining increasing scientific and public attention. Various studies show that NMPs occur abundantly within the environment, leading to a high likelihood of human exposure to NMPs. Here, different exposure scenarios can occur. The most notable exposure routes of NMPs into the human body are via the airways and gastrointestinal tract (GIT) through inhalation or ingestion, but also via the skin due to the use of personal care products (PCPs) containing NMPs. Once NMPs have entered the human body, it is possible that they are translocated from the exposed organ to other body compartments. In our review article, we combine the current knowledge on the (1) exposure routes of NMPs to humans with the basic understanding of the potential (2) translocation mechanisms into human tissues and, consequently, their (3) fate within the human body. Regarding the (1) exposure routes, we reviewed the current knowledge on the occurrence of NMPs in food, beverages, personal care products and the air (focusing on indoors and workplaces) and found that the studies suggest an abundant presence of MPs within the exposure scenarios. The overall abundance of MPs in exposure matrices relevant to humans highlights the importance of understanding whether NMPs have the potential for tissue translocation. Therefore, we describe the current knowledge on the potential (2) translocation pathways of NMPs from the skin, GIT and respiratory systems to other body compartments. Here, particular attention was paid to how likely NMPs can translocate from the primary exposed organs to secondary organs due to naturally occurring defence mechanisms against tissue translocation. Based on the current understanding, we conclude that a dermal translocation of NMPs is rather unlikely. In contrast, small MPs and NPs can generally translocate from the GIT and respiratory system to other tissues. Thus, we reviewed the existing literature on the (3) fate of NMPs within the human body. Based on the current knowledge of the contamination of human exposure routes and the potential translocation mechanisms, we critically discuss the size of the detected particles reported in the fate studies. In some cases, the particles detected in human tissue samples exceed the size of a particle to overcome biological barriers allowing particle translocation into tissues. Therefore, we emphasize the importance of critically reading and discussing the presented results of NMP in human tissue samples.

Consuming microplastics? Investigation of commercial salts as a source of microplastics (MPs) in diet

The omnipresence of microplastics (MPs) in marine and terrestrial environments as a pollutant of concern is well established and widely discussed in the literature. However, studies on MP contamination in commercial food sources like salts from the terrestrial environment are scarce. Thus, this is the first study to investigate various varieties of Australian commercial salts (both terrestrial and marine salts) as a source of MPs in the human diet, and the first to detect MPs in black salt. Using Nile red dye, the MPs were detected and counted under light microscopy, further characterised using attenuated total reflectance Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). Of all the 90 suspected particles, 78.8% were identified as MPs with a size ranging between 23.2 µm and 3.9 mm. The fibres and fragments constituted 75.78% and 24.22% respectively. Among the tested samples, Himalayan pink salt (coarse) from terrestrial sources was found to have the highest MP load, i.e. 174.04 ± 25.05 (SD) particle/kg, followed by black salt at 157.41 ± 23.13 particle/kg. The average concentration of detected MPs in Australian commercial salts is 85.19 ± 63.04 (SD) per kg. Polyamide (33.8%) and polyurethane (30.98%) were the dominant MP types. Considering the maximum recommended (World Health Organization) salt uptake by adults daily at 5 g, we interpret that an average person living in Australia may be ingesting approximately 155.47 MPs/year from salt uptake. Overall, MP contamination was higher in terrestrial salts (such as black and Himalayan salt) than the marine salt. In conclusion, we highlight those commercial salts used in our daily lives serve as sources of MPs in the diet, with unknown effects on human health.

Potential risk of microplastics in processed foods: Preliminary risk assessment concerning polymer types, abundance, and human exposure of microplastics

The occurrence of microplastics (MPs) has been widely reported in human foodstuffs, and their potential negative effects on human health have been brought into focus. Processed foods are more susceptible to MPs as contamination can be introduced during processing and packaging. However, the risk posed by MPs in processed foods remained unclear. This work aims to critically review the available data for MPs in 11 types of possessed foods and to conduct a preliminary risk assessment of MPs in processed foods. For a comprehensive evaluation, three indicators were selected and determined, namely chemical risk, pollution load, and estimated daily intake (EDI). Our results suggest that nori has the highest chemical risk, followed by canned fish, beverages, table salt, and other food items. In the case of pollution load, nori and milk fall into the risk category of Ⅳ and Ⅲ respectively. Table salts, bottled water, and sugar exhibited lower MPs pollution load (risk category of Ⅱ), whereas the pollution loads of other foods were calculated to be category Ⅰ. Moreover, a correlation between the pollution load of sea salts and MPs pollution level in ambient seawater was found. Regarding EDI of MPs from different processed foods, MPs intakes through bottled water (14.3 ± 3.4 n kg^-1 d^-1) and milk (6.6 ± 2.4 n kg^-1 d^-1) are significantly higher than that of the other foods (< 1 n kg^-1 d^-1). The probabilistic estimation of MPs daily intake indicated that children (19.7 n kg^-1 d^-1) are at a higher health risk than adults (female: 17.6 n kg^-1 d^-1, male: 12.6 n kg^-1 d^-1). Nevertheless, the exposure dose used in toxicological studies was about 10 times higher than the MPs intake via processed foods. Therefore, we argued that MPs in processed foods only carry limited risk. Overall, this study would provide the basis for risk management of MPs in processed food products.

Microplastics in food: scoping review on health effects, occurrence, and human exposure

With most of the plastics ever produced now being waste, slowly degrading and fragmenting in the environment, microplastics (MPs) have become an emerging concern regarding their presence in food and influence on human health. While many studies on marine ecotoxicology and the occurrence of MPs in fish and shellfish exist, research on the occurrence of MPs in other foods and their effect on human health is still in early-stage, but the attention is increasing. This review aimed to provide relevant information on the possible health effect of ingested MPs, the occurrence, and levels of MPs contamination in various foods and estimated exposure to MPs through food. Potential toxic consequences from exposure to MPs through food can arise from MPs themselves, diffused monomers and additives but also from sorbed contaminants or microorganisms that colonise MPs. Recent publications have confirmed widespread contamination of our food with MPs including basic and life-essential constituents such as water and salt providing the basis for chronic exposure. Available exposure assessments indicate that we ingest up to several hundred thousand MPs particles yearly.

Spatiotemporal variations in marine litter along the Gulf of Guinea coastline, Araromi seaside, Nigeria

This study assessed the seasonal variation in the magnitude of marine litter along the Gulf of Guinea coastline, Araromi seaside, Nigeria with a survey of twenty sampling sites. The total number of litter items collected was 29,029 comprising 7358 and 21,671 items in the dry and rainy season respectively. The average number of items per square meter was higher in the rainy season (1.80 ± 0.35) than in the dry season (0.61 ± 0.19). Plastic materials dominated the litter composition with 86 % and 91.8 % in the dry and rainy season respectively. The beach cleanliness assessed as clean coast index (CCI) depicted the beach as dirty (12.26 ± 3.74) during the dry season and extremely dirty (36.13 ± 6.91) in the rainy season. The hazardous item index (HII) also showed the coastline was littered with hazardous items. These results provide baseline data for marine litter management along the Gulf of Guinea coastlines and other coastlines in Africa.

Environmental behaviors and degradation methods of microplastics in different environmental media

Microplastics, as a group of emerging contaminants, are widely present in environmental media and have the potential to endanger the ecological environment and human health. Due to the inconsistencies and difficulties inherent in the analysis of microplastic particles, global monitoring data on the distribution of microplastics in the environment are still far from sufficient. The fate and migration of microplastics in the environment are also uncertain. Therefore, there have been increasing reviews on the distribution, biological effects, migration, and health risks of microplastics. However, reports focusing on the degradation of microplastics are still rare. Understanding and commanding the environmental behavior of microplastics are of great significance to explore the treatment of microplastic pollution. Although some preliminary studies on microplastics have been carried out, there is still an urgent need to conduct a comprehensive study on environmental behaviors and degradation methods of microplastics in different environmental media. This article summarizes the recent advances on microplastics, basically includes the distribution and ecological impact of microplastics in soil and water environments, then elaborates the migration behavior and influencing factors of microplastics, and focuses on the research progress of microplastics degradation methods. On this basis, the problems existing in the current research and the future development directions have been proposed. This review could provide a more systematic reference for the development and research of microplastics in the future.

Extraction, identification, and environmental risk assessment of microplastics in commercial toothpaste

Microplastics in personal care and food products are given much importance globally due to the adverse impact of microplastics on living beings. In the present study, microplastics from ten different commercially sold toothpaste in India were extracted by vacuum filtration and characterized with microscopic and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopic analyses. Results revealed that colorless fragments and fibers were the microparticle types of common occurrence which ranged from 0.2 to 0.9% weight in the toothpaste with an abundance range of 32.7-83.2%. Fifty percent of the toothpaste samples showed more than 50% microplastic particle abundance indicating that the microplastic plastic particles were added by the manufacturers. The minimum size of microplastics recorded in the present study was 3.5 μm with a maximum size exceeding 400 μm. The maximum number of microplastics in the toothpaste was 167, 508 and 193 respectively, distributed in the size range of <100 μm, 100-400 μm, and >400 μm. The present study recorded four major polymer types, viz., cellophane, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, and polyamide in the toothpaste samples. Surprisingly, polyethylene-a common polymer reported in toothpaste was not traced in the present samples. Regarding the Indian context, the current study is a new addition to the knowledge of the occurrence of microplastics in toothpaste. The average annual addition of microplastics into the environment through toothpaste was calculated as 1.4 billion g/year for India, posing a significant threat to the environment.

Critical review of microplastics removal from the environment

Globally, microplastics pollution has become a serious environmental threat due to their multitude sources, widespread occurrence, persistence, and adverse effects to ecosystem and the human health. Addressing this multifaceted threat requires innovative technologies that can efficiently remove microplastics from the environment. In this review, we first overviewed the source, occurrence, and potential adverse impacts of microplastics to human health. We then identified promising technologies for microplastics removal, including physical, chemical, and biological approaches. A detailed analysis of the advantages and limitations of different techniques was provided. We concluded this review with the current challenges and future research priorities, which will guide us through the path addressing microplastics contamination.

Microplastics in the Food Chain

Currently, microplastics represent a widespread contamination found in almost every part of the environment. The plastic industry has generated waste since the 1950s, which unfortunately now counts in the millions. The largest share of plastic consumption is used to produce packaging materials, including those applied in the food industry. The versatility of plastic materials is mainly due to their lightness, flexibility, strength, and persistence. Although plastic materials are widely used due to their beneficial properties, contamination of the environment with microplastics and nanoplastics is an emerging problem worldwide. This type of contamination is endangering animal life and thus also the food chain and public health. This review summarizes the knowledge about microplastics in the food chain. The effect of microplastics on the food chain has been particularly studied in marine organisms, and research deals less with other food commodities. Therefore, based on the studied literature, we can conclude that the issue is still not sufficiently examined, and should be paid more attention to maintain the health of the population.

COVID-19, a double-edged sword for the environment: a review on the impacts of COVID-19 on the environment

This review paper discusses the most relevant impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) originated in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The disease has infected 70 million people and caused the death of 1.58 million people since the US Food and Drug Administration issued an Emergency Use Authorization to develop a vaccine to prevent COVID-19 on December 11, 2020. COVID-19 is a global crisis that has impacted everything directly connected with human beings, including the environment. This review discusses the impacts of COVID-19 on the environment during the pandemic and post-COVID-19 era. During the first months of the COVID pandemic, global coal, oil, gas, and electricity demands declined by 8%, 5%, 2%, and 20%, respectively, relative to 2019. Stay-at-home orders in countries increased the concentrations of particles in indoor environments while decreasing the concentrations of PM2.5 and NOX in outdoor environments. Remotely working in response to the COVID-19 pandemic increased the carbon, water, and land footprints of Internet usage. Microplastics are released into our environment from the mishandling and mismanagement of personal protective equipment that endanger our water, soils, and sediments. Since the COVID-19 vaccine cannot be stored for a long time and spoils rapidly, more awareness of the massive waste of unused doses is needed. So COVID-19 is a double-edged sword for the environment.

A comprehensive review on assessment of plastic debris in aquatic environment and its prevalence in fishes and other aquatic animals in India

The presence of meso, macro, and microplastics (MPs) in aquatic environments has raised concerns due to their potential risks to aquatic as well as human life. Though plastics are considered to be inert in nature, MPs with toxic additives and accumulated contaminants have harmful ecological effects. Reports of absorption of MPs by internal tissues and toxicity in vital organs such as lung cells, liver, and brain cells have proved its serious health hazards. The study of plastic debris in the aquatic environment deserves special attention due to its ecotoxicological impact. This review presents a detailed account of the assessment of plastic debris in marine as well as freshwater environments. The formation of MPs and their sources, sampling, isolation, identification and characterization methods adopted, and the prevalence of MPs in aquatic life are discussed. To the best of our knowledge, the present article is a first-ever comprehensive review covering the entire of India. Our review finds that, so far, very few studies have been carried out, and there is a paucity of information, especially on the prevalence of plastic debris in the freshwater environment, fish, and other aquatic animals in India. While major studies have been done at various coastal locations in the southern part of India and a few studies in the rest of India, south-eastern states remain neglected. Toxicological studies on various life forms, including humans, are lacking. The present review also fills the gap in our knowledge of the various locations studied across India and can guide future research.