Microplastic ingestion in jellyfish Pelagia noctiluca (Forsskal, 1775) in the North Atlantic Ocean

Microplastics in Cronius ruber: Links to Wastewater Discharges

Microplastic pollution in the ocean is a growing problem. It affects the entire ecosystem and, therefore, the species that inhabit it. Plastics can be filtered or ingested by organisms, entering and negatively affecting individuals. Among the populations affected are crustaceans. In previous studies, fibers have been found mainly in the stomach contents of these animals, although other types, such as pellets, have also been found. This study examines the presence of microplastics in Cronius ruber, an invasive crab species in the Canary Islands, and investigates their potential links to nearby wastewater discharges. A total of 63 crabs were sampled from four beaches in Gran Canaria in 2021, and their stomach contents were analyzed through alkaline digestion, filtration, and micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (micro-FTIR). Microplastics were detected in 52% of individuals; the particles averaged 0.7 ± 0.5 mm in length, with an average of 1.73 ± 1.02 particles per crab. Fibers constituted 89% of the microplastics, with blue and black being the predominant colors. Rayon, commonly used in textiles, was the most frequently identified polymer (52%), highlighting the role of wastewater from laundry processes as a significant pollution source. Beaches close to unauthorized wastewater discharges, such as Anfi del Mar (n = 3) and El Puertillo (n = 32), showed the highest contamination levels, with a frequency of occurrence (FO) of microplastic particles of 67% and 58%, respectively. Playa de Las Nieves was the one with the lowest contamination level (n = 22), with a frequency of occurrence of microplastic particles of 41%. This is the first study to document microplastic ingestion in C. ruber, raising concerns about its ecological presence and the potential bioaccumulation of contaminants in marine ecosystems. Further research is essential to understand the long-term consequences of microplastic exposure on invasive species and their possible roles in pollutant transfer through food webs.

Microplastic from beach sediment to tissue: a case study on burrowing crab Dotilla blanfordi

Background

Microplastics (MPs) are pervasive pollutants in the marine environment, exhibiting persistence in coastal sediment over extended periods. However, the mechanism of their uptake by marine organisms and distribution in habitat is less understood. The objective of the present study was to investigate the presence of MP contamination in burrow sediment, feeding pellets, and tissue of Dotilla blanfordi in the Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat State.

Methods

A total of 500 g of burrow sediment, 100 g of feeding pellets, and body tissue of 10 resident D. blanfordi were pooled as one replica. Such seven replicas from each site were analyzed for MP extraction from three sites, including Asharmata, Mandvi, and Serena, located in the Gulf of Kachchh. The standard protocol was used during the analysis of the collected samples in order to isolate MPs.

Results

The abundance of MP was found higher in burrow sediment, feeding pellets and tissue of D. blanfordi at study site Mandvi, followed by Serena and Asharmata. The abundance of MP was found higher in D. blanfordi tissue, followed by burrow sediment and feeding pellet. A significant variation was observed in MP abundance among burrow sediment, feeding pellets, and tissue. MPs with various shapes (fiber, film, and fragment), sizes (1-2, 2-3, 3-4, and 4-5 mm), and colors (blue, green, black, pink, purple, red transparent) were recorded from all the study sites. Polyurethane and polyvinyl chloride were recognized as the chemical profile of the extracted MPs. The current investigation revealed greater accumulation of MPs in D. blanfordi's tissues compared to sediment and pellets, suggesting a risk of MP contamination in marine benthic fauna with a greater rate of bioaccumulation. D. blanfordi plays a significant role as a structuring agent for MP distribution in the intertidal flat through burrowing activity.

Evaluation of microplastic pollution and risk assessment in a tropical monsoonal estuary, with special emphasis on contamination in jellyfish

Estuaries, which serve as vital links between land and coastal ecosystems, play a significant part in facilitating the transfer of plastic waste from the land to the ocean. In this research, we examined the prevalence, characteristics, and ecological risks of microplastics (MPs) in the extensively urbanized Cochin Estuarine System (CES), India. Additionally, it represents one of the initial evidence-based examinations of MPs ingestion by jellyfish in Indian waters, focusing on Acromitus flagellatus, Blackfordia virginica, and Pleurobrachia pileus species. The abundance of MPs found in the surface water of the Cochin Estuarine System (CES) varied between 14.44 ± 9 to 30 ± 15.94 MP/m3, with an average of 21.6 ± 11 MP/m3. In both surface waters and jellyfish from the Cochin Estuarine System (CES), fibers were the most prevalent type of MPs, with polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyamide (PA) being the most common polymer varieties. To evaluate the current levels of MPs and their effect on the CES, the Pollution Load Index (PLI), Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI), and Polymeric Risk Index (H) were utilized. The high PLIestuary values (20.33), high Hestuary values (234.02), and extreme PERIestuary value (1646.06) indicate that the CES is facing an extreme ecological risk. Among the 280 jellyfish individuals examined, 118 (42.14%) were recognized to contain MPs with an average of 1.54 ± 2.68 MPs/individual. Pearson bivariate analysis revealed a significant correlation between the jellyfish bell size and number of plastics per individual. Comparison between jellyfish species revealed, the majority (66%) of the MPs identified in jellyfish were from A. flagellatus and 44 among the 50 jellyfish examined (88%) had MPs. These findings suggest that A. flagellatus may be a potential sink for MPs and may be utilized to be a bioindicator for monitoring MPs contamination in estuarine systems, aiding in future plastic pollution mitigation efforts.

Microplastic pollution in water environment of typical nature reserves and scenery districts in southern China

Microplastics were frequently detected in the ocean, freshwater environment and wastewater treatment plants. This study aims to fill up the knowledge gap of microplastic distribution in nature reserves and scenery districts. Microplastic samples were collected, the distribution characteristics were analyzed with a stereoscopic microscope and a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer, and the ecological risks of microplastic pollution were calculated. Microplastics were detected in all the collected water samples and the average abundances of microplastics in the surface water of eleven investigated nature reserves and scenery districts ranged from 542 to 5500 items/m3. The degrees of microplastic pollution of all the surveyed nature reserves and scenery districts were classified as hazard level I. Fiber microplastics represented the largest average proportion (67.4 %) and 91.7 % of the detected microplastics were smaller than 2 mm. Corresponding to the frequent detection of fiber microplastics, cotton was the most abundant (25.5 %) polymer type of the suspected microplastics, followed by polyamide (PA, 20.6 %), polyester (PET, 17.0 %), and cellulose (15.6 %). For the ecological risk of the microplastic polymers, six, two and three nature reserves and scenery districts were defined to be at hazard level I, II and III, respectively. In brief, microplastic pollution occurred in all the surveyed nature reserves/scenery districts and posed different degrees of ecological risks.

Microplastics in marine-derived traditional Chinese medicine, potential threat to patients

Microplastics (MPs) contamination is widely found in marine organisms. Marine traditional Chinese medicines (MTCM) are derived from marine organisms, but there are no relevant reports on detecting MPs in MTCM. This study selected samples of MTCM from two representative pharmaceutical companies, Brand F and Brand Z, including mother-of-pearl, stone cassia, seaweed, pumice, oyster, kombu, calcined Concha Arcae, cuttlebone, and clam shell to detect and analyze the presence of MPs. The abundance, type, color, size, and composition of MPs were investigated. Varying degrees of MPs contamination was present in all MTCM. The abundance of MPs in different MTCM ranged from 0.07 to 9.53 items/g. Their type, color, and size are similar, mainly fiber, transparent and size <2 mm. The composition of MPs is primarily made of cotton, cellulose and rayon. This study contributes to the first record of MPs in MTCM. Our results show that microplastic pollution is common in MTCM, which may cause potential risk to patients consuming MTCM.

Multi-dimensional visualization of ingestion, biological effects and interactions of microplastics and a representative POP in edible jellyfish

Due to their ubiquity and potential risks, microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are concerning environmental issues. Yet there are still significant knowledge gaps in understanding the tissue-specific accumulation and dynamic change of MPs and NPs in the aquatic organism and how these micro/nano-scale emerging contaminants interact with other environmental pollutants such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Here, in vivo imaging systems (IVIS), radioisotope tracing, and histological staining were innovatively used to reveal the fate and toxicity of fluorescently-labeled MPs/NPs and 14C-labeled 2,4,4'-trichlorobiphenyl (PCB28) in edible jellyfish Rhopilema esculentum. These contaminants' ingestion, biological effects, and interactions were visualized at cellular, tissue, and whole-body multidimensional levels. Both MPs and NPs were shown to be preferentially accumulated in the mouthlets of oral arms, and most ingested MPs/NPs were present in the extracellular environment instead of being internalized into the mesoglea. Moreover, the presence of MPs or NPs in the seawater significantly inhibited the bioaccumulation of PCB28 in the jellyfish tissue, thus alleviating physiological alteration, gastric damage, and apoptosis caused by PCB28. This study provides a multi-dimensional visualization strategy to display the distribution and biological effects of typical pollutants in marine organisms and offers new insights for understanding the impacts of MPs/NPs and POPs on marine ecosystems.

Nanoplastic uptake temporarily affects the pulsing behavior in ephyrae of the moon jellyfish Aurelia sp

The aim of this study is to investigate for the first time the uptake and ecotoxicological effects of nanoplastics (NPs) in a marine cnidarian. Ephyrae of the moon jellyfish Aurelia sp. of different ages (0 and 7 days old) were exposed to negatively charged polystyrene NPs for 24 h; then, the uptake was assessed through traditional and novel techniques, namely microscopy and three-dimensional (3D) holotomography. Immobility and behavioral responses (frequency of pulsations) of ephyrae were also investigated to clarify if NP toxicity differed along the first life stages. NP uptake was observed in ephyrae thanks to the 3D technique. Such internalization did not affect survival, but it temporarily impaired the pulsation mode only in 0 day old ephyrae. This may be ascribed to the negative charged NPs, contributing to jellyfish behavioral alteration. These findings promote 3D holotomography as a suitable tool to detect NPs in marine organisms. Moreover, this study recommends the use of cnidarians of different ages to better assess NP ecotoxicological effects in these organisms, key components of the marine food web.

Searching for hotspots of neustonic microplastics in the Canary Islands

In this study, we investigated the concentration, distribution, and characteristics of neustonic MPs in the Canary Islands, with a particular focus on the island leeward zones, where a high accumulation of floating marine microplastics is expected. Samples were collected with a manta net at 15 different sites from Alegranza to La Gomera during the IMPLAMAC expedition. The microplastic concentration in surface waters ranged from 0.27 MPs/m³ in Alegranza to 136.7 MPs/m³ in the south of Gran Canaria. The highest concentration of MPs found was due to the presence of a sea-surface slick, also called "marine litter windrow", formed in the south of Gran Canaria. The most abundant zooplankton group in the neuston was copepods, except at the marine litter windrow where fish larvae and eggs predominated. This indicates that coastal areas where marine litter windrows are formed have a high risk of MP ingestion and potential adverse effects on biota.

A global snapshot of microplastic contamination in sediments and biota of marine protected areas

Microplastics (MPs) become ubiquitous contaminants in Marine Protected Areas (MPA) that have been planned as a conservation strategy. The present study provides a comprehensive overview of the occurrence, abundance, and distribution of MPs potentially affecting MPA worldwide. Data on MP occurrence and levels in sediment and biota samples were collected from recent peer-reviewed literature and screened using a GIS-based approach overlapping MP records with MPA boundaries. MPs were found in 186 MPAs, with levels ranging from 0 to 9187.5 items/kg in sediment and up to 17,461.9 items/kg in organisms. Peaked MPs concentrations occurred within multiple-use areas, and no-take MPAs were also affected. About half of MP levels found within MPA fell into the higher concentration quartiles, suggesting potential impacts on these areas. In general, benthic species were likely more affected than pelagic ones due to the higher concentrations of MP reported in the tissues of benthic species. Alarmingly, MPs were found in tissues of two threatened species on the IUCN Red List. The findings denote urgent concerns about the effectiveness of the global system of protected areas and their proposed conservation goals.

Microplastics (MPs) in marine food chains: Is it a food safety issue?

The enormous usage of plastic over the last seven decades has resulted in a massive quantity of plastic waste, much of it eventually breaking down into microplastic (MP) and nano plastic (NP). The MPs and NPs are regarded as emerging pollutants of serious concern. Both MPs and NPs can have a primary or secondary origin. Their ubiquitous presence and ability to sorb, desorb, and leach chemicals have raised concern over their presence in the aquatic environment and, particularly, the marine food chain. MPs and NPs are also considered vectors for pollutant transfer along with the marine food chain, and people who consume seafood have began significant concerns about the toxicity of seafood. The exact consequences and risk of MP exposure to marine foods are largely unknown and should be a priority research area. Although several studies have documented an effective clearance mechanism by defecation, significant aspect has been less emphasized for MPs and NPs and their capability to translocate in organs and clearance is not well established. The technological limitations to study these ultra-fine MPs are another challenge to be addressed. Therefore, this chapter discusses the recent findings of MPs in different marine food chains, their translocation and accumulations potential, MPs as a critical vector for pollutant transfer, toxicology impact, cycling in the marine environment and seafood safety. Besides, the concerns and challenges that are overshadowed by findings for the significance of MPs were covered.

Selective feeding protects moon jellyfish (Aurelia aurita s.l.) from overloading with microplastics

Jellyfish blooms may be important bioindicators for marine ecosystem degradation, including the accumulation of microplastics in pelagic food webs. Here we show growth, respiration and filtration rates of the moon jellyfish (Aurelia aurita s.l.) when fed high concentrations (350 L^-1) of zooplankton prey (Artemia salina nauplii) and polystyrene (PS) or reference particles (charcoal; size range 50-500 μm). Our controlled feeding experiments reveal that inedible particles are ingested less efficiently compared to prey (retention efficiency ~60 % for PS) and actively removed from the gastrovascular system of ephyrae and medusae. Increased metabolic demands for excretion of inedible material (up to 76.7 ± 3.1 % of ingested prey biomass) suggest that overloading with microplastics can decelerate growth (observed maxima 26.1 % d^-1 and 12.6 % d^-1, respectively) and reproductive rates when food is limited. Possible consequences of this selective feeding strategy in response to proceeding microplastic pollution in the world's future oceans are discussed.

Review of research on migration, distribution, biological effects, and analytical methods of microfibers in the environment

Microplastics have been proven to be one of the critical environmental pollution issues. Moreover, microfibers, the most prominent form of microplastics in the environment, have likewise attracted the attention of various countries. With the increase in global population and industrialization, the production and use of fibers continue to increase yearly. As a result, a large number of microfibers are formed. If fiber products are not used or handled correctly, it will cause direct/indirect severe microfiber environmental pollution. Microfibers will be further broken into smaller fiber fragments when they enter the natural environment. Presently, researchers have conducted extensive research in the identification of microfibers, laying the foundation for further resourcefulness research. This work used bibliometric analysis to review the microfiber contamination researches systematically. First, the primary sources of microfibers and the influencing factors are analyzed. We aim to summarize the influence of the clothing fiber preparation and care processes on microfiber formation. Then, this work elaborated on the migration in/between water, atmosphere, and terrestrial environments. We also discussed the effects of microfiber on ecosystems. Finally, microfibers' current and foreseeable effective treatment, disposal, and resource utilization methods were explained. This paper will provide a structured reference for future microfiber research.

Microplastics ingestion and chemical pollutants in seabirds of Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain)

Plastic pollution constitutes an environmental problem in the Canary Islands nowadays. Nevertheless, studies evaluating the impact of plastics on its avifauna are still scarce. Gastrointestinal tracts of 88 birds belonging to 14 species were studied for the presence of plastics. Moreover, their livers were analyzed for the determination of bromodiphenyl ethers (BDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs). Among Cory's shearwaters (n = 45), the frequency of occurrence of plastic ingestion was considerably high (88.89 %). This species had the highest mean value of items (7.22 ± 5.66) and most of them were compatible with lines derived from fishing gear. PCBs and PAHs were detected in all of the samples and OCPs in the great majority of them (98.86 %). Our results highlight the problems that plastic debris (mainly for seabirds) and organic pollutants pose to these species.

Towards robust and repeatable methods for studying interactions between jellyfish and microplastics

Studies of microplastics are increasing exponentially and standard protocols are only beginning to be established. Jellyfish are considered susceptible to ingesting microplastics because they feed on small, suspended particles. Inconsistent approaches used to study interactions between jellyfish and microplastics, however, make comparisons among studies difficult. Here we review aspects of the methods used to sample jellyfish in the field and experimental approaches used in the laboratory to study interactions between jellyfish and microplastics, recommend some standard protocols and identify areas for further research. We highlight the need for experiments to be environmentally relevant, to study a greater diversity of species and to study different life history stages.

Multispecies Assessment of Anthropogenic Particle Ingestion in a Marine Protected Area

We have applied a multispecies ecosystem approach to analyse the ingestion of anthropogenic particles (AP) in the gastrointestinal tract of 313 individuals (17 fish species and 8 invertebrate species) from pelagic, demersal and benthic habitats in a marine protected area off the Western Mediterranean (Cabrera National Park). We have quantified and characterized the ingestion at several taxonomic levels of fish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, bivalves, and jellyfish in relation to biotic/abiotic factors based on taxonomic groups, trophic guilds (functional groups) and habitats. AP ingestion occurrence ranged from 26 to 100% with no significant differences among taxonomic groups. The fish within the MPA showed an overall ingestion occurrence ranging from 0 to 100%, the echinoderms from 29 to 100%, the bivalves from 72 to 96% and the jellyfish 36% ingestion. The ecosystem approach applied to evaluate overall AP ingestion within the species reported that for trophic guilds, the omnivorous species ingested the highest amounts of anthropogenic items, while herbivores ingested significantly fewer items than all other trophic guilds. Moreover, no significant differences were found amongst habitats, indicating a homogeneous spatial distribution of APs at all studied habitats. The multispecies approach provided insight into the high APs exposure to species within Cabrera MPA, highlighting the potential harm linked with marine litter that threatens marine biodiversity.

Ecotoxicity of Polyvinylidene Difluoride (PVDF) and Polylactic Acid (PLA) Microplastics in Marine Zooplankton

The aim of this study was to investigate the ecotoxicity of polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) and polylactic acid (PLA) microplastics (MPs) in two marine zooplankton: the crustacean Artemia franciscana and the cnidarian Aurelia sp. (common jellyfish). To achieve this goal, (i) MP uptake, (ii) immobility, and (iii) behavior (swimming speed, pulsation mode) of crustacean larval stages and jellyfish ephyrae exposed to MPs concentrations (1, 10, 100 mg/L) were assessed for 24 h. Using traditional and novel techniques, i.e., epifluorescence microscopy and 3D holotomography (HT), PVDF and PLA MPs were found in the digestive systems of the crustaceans and in the gelatinous tissue of jellyfish. Immobility was not affected in either organism, while a significant behavioral alteration in terms of pulsation mode was found in jellyfish after exposure to both PVDF and PLA MPs. Moreover, PLA MPs exposure in jellyfish induced a toxic effect (EC50: 77.43 mg/L) on the behavioral response. This study provides new insights into PLA and PVDF toxicity with the potential for a large impact on the marine ecosystem, since jellyfish play a key role in the marine food chain. However, further investigations incorporating additional species belonging to other trophic levels are paramount to better understand and clarify the impact of such polymers at micro scale in the marine environment. These findings suggest that although PVDF and PLA have been recently proposed as innovative and, in the case of PLA, biodegradable polymers, their effects on marine biota should not be underestimated.

Ingestion of polyethylene microspheres occur only in presence of prey in the jellyfish Aurelia aurita

Microplastic ingestion was studied in A. aurita, a bloom-forming, circumglobal medusa. Here, we determined whether factors such as the concentration of polyethylene microspheres (75-90 μm) or the absence/presence of prey affect the ingestion, duration of microspheres in the gastrovascular cavity (time of presence), and retention time. The presence of polyethylene microspheres' was determined by exposing medusae during 480 min to three different treatments (5000, 10,000, 20,000 particles L^-1), and was checked every 10 min to ascertain whether they had incorporated any. Preliminary results show that microsphere ingestion occurred only in the presence of prey (⁓294 Artemia nauplii L^-1). The time of presence of microbeads in A. aurita increased (103, 177, and 227 min), with increasing microplastic concentration, and the microbeads were egested within 150 min. This study initiates the understanding of the potential implications that arise of the encounter between jellyfish and microplastic agglomerates, and with perspectives for future research.