Receptor-selective determinants in catfish gonadotropin seat-belt loops

Identification and structural characterization of the factors involved in vitellogenesis and its regulation in the African Osteoglossiforme of aquacultural interest Heterotis niloticus (Cuvier, 1829)

The African bonytongue (Heterotis niloticus) is an excellent candidate for fish farming because it has outstanding biological characteristics and zootechnical performances. However, the absence of sexual dimorphism does not favor its reproduction in captivity or the understanding of its reproductive behavior. Moreover, no molecular data related to its reproduction is yet available. This study therefore focuses on the structural identification of the different molecular actors of vitellogenesis expressed in the pituitary gland, the liver and the ovary of H. niloticus. A transcriptomic approach based on de novo RNA sequencing of the pituitary gland, ovary and liver of females in vitellogenesis led to the creation of three transcriptomes. In silico analysis of these transcriptomes identified the sequences of pituitary hormones such as prolactin (PRL), luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and their ovarian receptors (PRLR, FSHR, LHR). In the liver and ovary, estrogen receptors (ER) beta and gamma, liver vitellogenins (VtgB and VtgC) and their ovarian receptors (VLDLR) were identified. Finally, the partial transcript of an ovarian Vtg weakly expressed compared to hepatic Vtg was identified based on structural criteria. Moreover, a proteomic approach carried out from mucus revealed the presence of one Vtg exclusively in females in vitellogenesis. In this teleost fish that does not exhibit sexual dimorphism, mucus Vtg could be used as a sexing biomarker based on a non-invasive technique compatible with the implementation of experimental protocols in vivo.

Characterization of gonadotropin receptors Fshr and Lhr in Japanese medaka, Oryzias latipes

Reproduction in vertebrates is controlled by the brain-pituitary-gonad axis, where the two gonadotropins follicle-stimulating hormone (Fsh) and luteinizing hormone (Lh) play vital parts by activating their cognate receptors in the gonads. The main purpose of this work was to study intra- and interspecies ligand promiscuity of teleost gonadotropin receptors, since teleost receptor specificity is unclear, in contrast to mammalian receptors. Receptor activation was investigated by transfecting COS-7 cells with either Fsh receptor (mdFshr, tiFshr) or Lh receptor (mdLhr, tiLhr), and tested for activation by recombinant homologous and heterologous ligands (mdFshβα, mdLhβα, tiFshβα, tiLhβα) from two representative fish orders, Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes, Beloniformes) and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus, Cichliformes). Results showed that each gonadotropin preferentially activates its own cognate receptor. Cross-reactivity was detected to some extent as mdFshβα was able to activate the mdLhr, and mdLhβα the mdFshr. Medaka pituitary extract (MPE) stimulated CRE-LUC activity in COS-7 cells expressing mdlhr, but could not stimulate cells expressing mdfshr. Recombinant tiLhβα, tiFshβα and tilapia pituitary extract (TPE) could activate the mdLhr, suggesting cross-species reactivity for mdLhr. Cross-species reactivity was also detected for mdFshr due to activation by tiFshβα, tiLhβα, and TPE, as well as for tiFshr and tiLhr due to stimulation by mdFshβα, mdLhβα, and MPE. Tissue distribution analysis of gene expression revealed that medaka receptors, fshr and lhr, are highly expressed in both ovary and testis. High expression levels were found for lhr also in brain, while fshr was expressed at low levels. Both fshr and lhr mRNA levels increased significantly during testis development. Amino acid sequence alignment and three-dimensional modelling of ligands and receptors highlighted conserved beta sheet domains of both Fsh and Lh between Japanese medaka and Nile tilapia. It also showed a higher structural homology and similarity of transmembrane regions of Lhr between both species, in contrast to Fshr, possibly related to the substitution of the conserved cysteine residue in the transmembrane domain 6 in medaka Fshr with glycine. Taken together, this is the first characterization of medaka Fshr and Lhr using homologous ligands, enabling to better understand teleost hormone-receptor interactions and specificities. The data suggest partial ligand promiscuity and cross-species reactivity between gonadotropins and their receptors in medaka and tilapia.

Gonadotropin Signaling in Zebrafish Ovary and Testis Development: Insights From Gene Knockout Study

Using the transcription activator-like effectors nucleases-mediated gene knockout technology, we have previously demonstrated that LH signaling is required for oocyte maturation and ovulation but is dispensable for testis development in zebrafish. Here, we have further established the fshb and fshr knockout zebrafish lines. In females, fshb mutant is subfertile, whereas fshr mutant is infertile. Folliculogenesis is partially affected in the fshb mutant but is completely arrested at the primary growth stage in the fshr mutant. In males, fshb and fshr mutant are fertile. The fertilization rate and histological structure of the testis is not affected. However, double knockout of fshb;lhb or fshr;lhr leads to all infertile male offspring. The key steroid hormones and steroidogenic genes are dramatically decreased in double knockout mutant (fshb;lhb and fshr;lhr) but not in single knockout mutant (fshb, lhb, fshr, and lhr) males. Furthermore, we have also demonstrated the constitutive activities of both FSH receptor (FSHR) and LH receptor in zebrafish and the compensatory role of LH by cross-reacting with FSHR in the fshb;lhr double mutant, thus explaining the phenotypic discrepancy observed among the ligand/receptor mutant lines. Taken together, our data established the following models on the roles of gonadotropin signaling in zebrafish gonad development. In females, FSH signaling is mainly responsible for promoting follicular growth, whereas LH signaling is mainly responsible for stimulating oocyte maturation and ovulation. In males, the functions of FSH and LH signaling overlap, and only disruption of both FSH and LH signaling could lead to the infertile phenotype. In the absence of FSH, LH could play a compensatory role by cross-reacting with FSHR in both male and female.

Development of a flatfish-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Fsh using a recombinant chimeric gonadotropin

In flatfishes with asynchronous and semicystic spermatogenesis, such as the Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis), the specific roles of the pituitary gonadotropins during germ cell development, particularly of the follicle-stimulating hormone (Fsh), are still largely unknown in part due to the lack of homologous immunoassays for this hormone. In this study, an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for Senegalese sole Fsh was developed by generating a rabbit antiserum against a recombinant chimeric single-chain Fsh molecule (rFsh-C) produced by the yeast Pichia pastoris. The rFsh-C N- and C-termini were formed by the mature sole Fsh β subunit (Fshβ) and the chicken glycoprotein hormone common α subunit (CGA), respectively. Depletion of the antiserum to remove anti-CGA antibodies further enriched the sole Fshβ-specific antibodies, which were used to develop the ELISA using the rFsh-C for the standard curve. The sensitivity of the assay was 10 and 50 pg/ml for Fsh measurement in plasma and pituitary, respectively, and the cross-reactivity with a homologous recombinant single-chain luteinizing hormone was 1%. The standard curve for rFsh-C paralleled those of serially diluted plasma and pituitary extracts of other flatfishes, such as the Atlantic halibut, common sole and turbot. In Senegalese sole males, the highest plasma Fsh levels were found during early spermatogenesis but declined during enhanced spermiation, as found in teleosts with cystic spermatogenesis. In pubertal males, however, the circulating Fsh levels were as high as in adult spermiating fish, but interestingly the Fsh receptor in the developing testis containing only spermatogonia was expressed in Leydig cells but not in the primordial Sertoli cells. These results indicate that a recombinant chimeric Fsh can be used to generate specific antibodies against the Fshβ subunit and to develop a highly sensitive ELISA for Fsh measurements in diverse flatfishes.

Demonstration of the Coexistence of Duplicated LH Receptors in Teleosts, and Their Origin in Ancestral Actinopterygians

Pituitary gonadotropins, FSH and LH, control gonad activity in vertebrates, via binding to their respective receptors, FSHR and LHR, members of GPCR superfamily. Until recently, it was accepted that gnathostomes possess a single FSHR and a single LHR, encoded by fshr and lhcgr genes. We reinvestigated this question, focusing on vertebrate species of key-phylogenetical positions. Genome analyses supported the presence of a single fshr and a single lhcgr in chondrichthyans, and in sarcopterygians including mammals, birds, amphibians and coelacanth. In contrast, we identified a single fshr but two lhgcr in basal teleosts, the eels. We further showed the coexistence of duplicated lhgcr in other actinopterygians, including a non-teleost, the gar, and other teleosts, e.g. Mexican tetra, platyfish, or tilapia. Phylogeny and synteny analyses supported the existence in actinopterygians of two lhgcr paralogs (lhgcr1/ lhgcr2), which do not result from the teleost-specific whole-genome duplication (3R), but likely from a local gene duplication that occurred early in the actinopterygian lineage. Due to gene losses, there was no impact of 3R on the number of gonadotropin receptors in extant teleosts. Additional gene losses during teleost radiation, led to a single lhgcr (lhgcr1 or lhgcr2) in some species, e.g. medaka and zebrafish. Sequence comparison highlighted divergences in the extracellular and intracellular domains of the duplicated lhgcr, suggesting differential properties such as ligand binding and activation mechanisms. Comparison of tissue distribution in the European eel, revealed that fshr and both lhgcr transcripts are expressed in the ovary and testis, but are differentially expressed in non-gonadal tissues such as brain or eye. Differences in structure-activity relationships and tissue expression may have contributed as selective drives in the conservation of the duplicated lhgcr. This study revises the evolutionary scenario and nomenclature of gonadotropin receptors, and opens new research avenues on the roles of duplicated LHR in actinopterygians.

Catfish gonadotrophins: cellular origin, structural properties and physiology

Gonadotrophins (GTHs) play a central role in the regulation of gametogenesis and spawning. The structural duality of the GTHs [luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)] is established in fishes with the exception of ancestral vertebrates. Most studies indicate that, in teleosts, the GTHs are secreted in separate cells. Phylogenetic analysis shows that the common α-subunit of the GTHs (and also of thyroid-stimulating hormone) and LHβ are highly conserved in fishes, as in tetrapods. However, FSHβ shows considerable divergence in teleosts. There may be 12 or 13 cysteine residues, with an additional one near the N-terminus. There may be one or two N-linked glycolsyation sites. In catfishes, there are 13 cysteine residues and one N-linked glycosylation site. In an extreme situation, a potential glycosylation site is lacking in some fishes. Both FSH and LH receptors are characterised in teleosts. The FSH receptor is promiscuous and can be cross-activated by LH. By contrast, the LH receptor is highly selective, being activated by its natural ligand or by heterologous ligands (e.g. human chorionic gonadotrophin). Consequently, teleosts show different patterns of LH and FSH secretion. In catfishes, in the absence of native FSH protein, LH controls all aspects of reproduction, from early gametogenesis to spawning.

Targeted gene disruption in zebrafish reveals noncanonical functions of LH signaling in reproduction

The pivotal role of gonadotropin signaling in regulating gonadal development and functions has attracted much research attention in the past 2 decades. However, the precise physiological role of gonadotropin signaling is still largely unknown in fish. In this study, we have established both LH β-subunit (lhb) and LH receptor (lhr) knockout zebrafish lines by transcription activator-like effector nucleases. Intriguingly, both homozygous lhb and lhr mutant male fish are fertile. The fertilization rate, sperm motility, and histological structure of the testis were not affected in either lhb or lhr mutant males. On the contrary, homozygous lhb mutant females are infertile, whereas homozygous lhr mutant females are fertile. Folliculogenesis was not affected in either lhb or lhr mutants, but oocyte maturation and ovulation were disrupted in lhb mutant, whereas only ovulation was affected in lhr mutant. Differential expression of genes in the ovary involved in steroidogenesis, oocyte maturation, and ovulation was found between the lhb and lhr mutants. These data demonstrate the essential role of LH signaling in oocyte maturation and ovulation, and support the notion that LH acts through the FSH receptor in the absence of LH receptor. Moreover, the defects of lhb mutant could be partially restored by administration of human chorionic gonadotropin. This in vivo evidence in the present study demonstrates, for the first time in any vertebrate species, that LH signaling is indispensable in female reproduction but not in male reproduction. LH signaling is demonstrated to control oocyte maturation and ovulation in the ovary.

Follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone mediate the androgenic pathway in Leydig cells of an evolutionary advanced teleost

The endocrine pathways controlling vertebrate spermatogenesis are well established in mammals where the pituitary gonadotropins follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) exclusively activate the FSH receptor (FSHR) in Sertoli cells and the LH/choriogonadotropin receptor (LHCGR) in Leydig cells, respectively. In some teleosts, however, it has been shown that Lh can cross-activate the Fshra ortholog, and that Leydig cells coexpress the Lhcgrba and Fshra paralogs, thus mediating the androgenic function of Fsh in the testis. Here, we investigated whether these proposed mechanisms are conserved in an evolutionary advanced pleuronectiform teleost, the Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis). Transactivation assays using sole Fshra- and Lhcgrba-expressing cells and homologous single-chain recombinant gonadotropins (rFsh and rLh) showed that rFsh exclusively activated Fshra, whereas rLh stimulated both Lhcgrba and Fshra. The latter cross-activation of Fshra by rLh occurred with an EC(50) 4-fold higher than for rFsh. Both recombinant gonadotropins elicited a significant androgen release response in vitro and in vivo, which was blocked by protein kinase A (PKA) and 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase inhibitors, suggesting that activation of steroidogenesis through the cAMP/PKA pathway is the major route for both Lh- and Fsh-stimulated androgen secretion. Combined in situ hybridization and immunocytochemistry using cell-specific molecular markers and antibodies specifically raised against sole Fshra and Lhcgrba demonstrated that both receptors are expressed in Leydig cells, whereas Sertoli cells only express Fshra. These data suggest that Fsh-mediated androgen production through the activation of cognate receptors in Leydig cells is a conserved pathway in Senegalese sole.

Perspectives on fish gonadotropins and their receptors

Teleosts lack a hypophyseal portal system and hence neurohormones are carried by nerve fibers from the preoptic region to the pituitary. The various cell types in the teleost pituitary are organized in discrete domains. Fish possess two gonadotropins (GtH) similar to FSH and LH in other vertebrates; they are heterodimeric hormones that consist of a common alpha subunit non-covalently associated with a hormone-specific beta subunit. In recent years the availability of molecular cloning techniques allowed the isolation of the genes coding for the GtH subunits in 56 fish species representing at least 14 teleost orders. Advanced molecular engineering provides the technology to produce recombinant GtHs from isolated cDNAs. Various expression systems have been used for the production of recombinant proteins. Recombinant fish GtHs were produced for carp, seabream, channel and African catfish, goldfish, eel, tilapia, zebrafish, Manchurian trout and Orange-spotted grouper. The hypothalamus in fishes exerts its regulation on the release of the GtHs via several neurohormones such as GnRH, dopamine, GABA, PACAP, IGF-I, norepinephrine, NPY, kisspeptin, leptin and ghrelin. In addition, gonadal steroids and peptides exert their effects on the gonadotropins either directly or via the hypothalamus. All these are discussed in detail in this review. In mammals, the biological activities of FSH and LH are directed to different gonadal target cells through the cell-specific expression of the FSH receptor (FSHR) and LH receptor (LHR), respectively, and the interaction between each gonadotropin-receptor couple is highly selective. In contrast, the bioactivity of fish gonadotropins seems to be less specific as a result of promiscuous hormone-receptor interactions, while FSHR expression in Leydig cells explains the strong steroidogenic activity of FSH in certain fish species.

Identification of a luteinizing hormone-selective determinant in the exodomain of a follicle-stimulating hormone receptor

Mammalian glycoprotein hormone receptors (GpHRs) display a stringent selectivity for their cognate hormones. In contrast, the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor of the African catfish (cfFSHR) is promiscuously activated by catfish luteinizing hormone (cfLH). Glycoprotein hormones bind to the concave site of the cusp-shaped N-terminal GpHR exodomain, which is formed by 9-10 parallel beta-strands. Hence, hormone selectivity of each GpHR for its cognate ligand is defined by amino acid sequence divergence in these beta-strands between different GpHRs. To identify the molecular determinants that allow promiscuous activation of the cfFSHR by cfLH, beta-strands were systematically exchanged between the cfFSHR and the human FSHR. Both gain-of-function and loss-of-function mutational approaches revealed that beta-strand 2 of the cfFSHR contains determinants that contribute to the receptor's responsiveness to cfLH.

Molecular characterization of two sea bass gonadotropin receptors: cDNA cloning, expression analysis, and functional activity

The follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and the luteinizing hormone (LH) play central roles in vertebrate reproduction. They act through their cognate receptors to stimulate testicular and ovarian functions. The present study reports the cloning and characterization of two sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) cDNAs encoding a FSH receptor (sbsFSHR) and a LH receptor (sbsLHR). The mature proteins display typical features of the glycoprotein hormone receptor family members, but the sbsFSHR also contains some remarkable differences when compared with other fish or mammalian FSHRs. Among them, a distinct extracellular N-terminal cysteine domain as regards to its length and cysteine number, and the presence of an extra leucine-rich repeat. Expression analysis revealed that the sbsFSHR is exclusively expressed in gonadal tissues, specifically in the follicular wall of previtellogenic and early-vitellogenic follicles. On the contrary, sbsLHR mRNA was found to be widely distributed in sea bass somatic tissues. When stably expressed in mammalian cell lines, sbsFSHR was specifically stimulated by bovine FSH, while sbsLHR was activated by both bovine LH and FSH. Nevertheless, specific stimulation of the sbsLHR was observed when recombinant sea bass gonadotropins were used. The isolation of a FSHR and a LHR in sea bass opens new ways to study gonadotropin action in this species.

Molecular cloning and characterization of FSH and LH receptors in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)

Two cDNAs encoding the FSH receptor (FSHR) and the LH receptor (LHR) from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) were cloned and characterized. The predicted protein sequence for FSHR comprises a mature protein of 635 amino acids (aa) and a signal peptide of 23aa, and for LHR a mature protein of 701aa and a signal peptide of 27aa. Multiple sequence alignment of Atlantic salmon FSHR and LHR with gonadotropin receptor sequences of available teleosts and representative vertebrates revealed high sequence homology with other salmonids (97-98% for both receptors); amino acid identities ranged from 59 to 67% for FSHR and 47-79% for LHR compared with other teleosts, and between 50 and 52% compared with other vertebrates. The salmon FSHR and LHR showed the typical characteristics of glycoprotein receptors, including a long N-terminal extracellular domain (ECD), seven transmembrane domains and a short C-terminal intracellular domain. The ECD of the Atlantic salmon FSHR and LHR were composed of nine imperfect leucine-rich repeats forming the potential recognition sites for the corresponding hormone. The comparative analysis of the recognition sites in the Atlantic salmon gonadotropin receptors with the corresponding sites in the human receptors showed that the nature of the residues involved in the key contacts with the glycoprotein alpha-subunit were highly conserved. In contrast the recognition sites for the specific beta-subunits showed clear differences between the two salmon gonadotropin receptors and the human receptors. In the salmon LHR the recognition sites for the LH beta-subunit were relatively conserved, while the recognition sites for the FSH beta-subunit in the salmon FSHR showed a higher divergence, suggesting different evolution rates for the two teleost gonadotropin receptors. Both FSHR and LHR were mainly expressed in the ovary and testis, but were also detected at low abundance in extra-gonadal tissues such as gills, brain, liver and heart.

Fish FSH receptors bind LH: how to make the human FSH receptor to be more fishy?

In mammals, the interactions between glycoprotein hormones and their cognate receptors are highly specific; unintended cross-reactivity under normal physiological conditions has not been observed. The interactions between fish gonadotropins and their receptors, on the other hand, appeared to be less discriminatory. For example, the catfish follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) receptor was highly responsive to both catfish luteinizing hormone (LH) and catfish FSH. Similarly, the FSH receptor of coho salmon bound both salmon FSH and LH. In contrast, LH receptors of both species were found to be rather specific for their cognate LH. This paper intends to summarize the current situation with special emphasis to our comparative structure-function studies that aim at elucidating the molecular basis of ligand selectivity (in mammals) and ligand promiscuity (in fish).