The inhibition of COPII trafficking is important for intestinal epithelial tight junction disruption during enteropathogenic Escherichia coli and Citrobacter rodentium infection

Type III Secretion System in Intestinal Pathogens and Metabolic Diseases

Modern lifestyle changes, especially the consumption of a diet high in salt, sugar, and fat, have contributed to the increasing incidence and prevalence of chronic metabolic diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and gout. Changing lifestyles continuously shape the gut microbiota which is closely related to the occurrence and development of metabolic diseases due to its specificity of composition and structural diversity. A large number of pathogenic bacteria such as Yersinia, Salmonella, Shigella, and pathogenic E. coli in the gut utilize the type III secretion system (T3SS) to help them resist host defenses and cause disease. Although the T3SS is critical for the virulence of many important human pathogens, its relationship with metabolic diseases remains unknown. This article reviews the structure and function of the T3SS, the disruption of intestinal barrier integrity by the T3SS, the changes in intestinal flora containing the T3SS in metabolic diseases, the possible mechanisms of the T3SS affecting metabolic diseases, and the application of the T3SS in the treatment of metabolic diseases. The aim is to provide insights into metabolic diseases targeting the T3SS, thereby serving as a valuable reference for future research on disease diagnosis, prevention, and treatment.

Influence of Escherichia coli infection on intestinal mucosal barrier integrity of germ-free piglets

AIMS

We focused on investigating the influence of Escherichia coli (E. coli) on the intestinal barrier.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We studied changes in the distribution and secretory activities of goblet cells and enteroendocrine cells (EECs), as well as changes in the population of mast cells (MCs) in the jejunal and colonic mucosa of germ-free (GF) piglets as a healthy control group and GF piglets whose intestines were colonised with E. coli bacteria on day 5.

KEY FINDINGS

The results suggest that the colon of GF piglets is more resistant and less prone to coliform bacterial infection compared to the jejunum. This can be confirmed by a lower degree of histopathological injury index as well as an improvement of the morphometric parameters of the colonic mucosa, together with a significantly increased (p < 0.05) expression of MUC1/EMA, and ZO-3. We also observed a significant decrease in the population of activated MCs (p < 0.001) and EECs (p < 0.001). These findings may indicate a rapid response and better preparation of the intestinal barrier for possible pathological attacks and the subsequent development of mucosal lesions during the development and progression of the intestinal diseases.

SIGNIFICANCE

To date, gut-targeted therapeutic approaches that can modulate bacterial translocation and chronic inflammation are still in their infancy but represent one of the most promising areas of research for the development of new effective treatments or clinical strategies in the future. Therefore, a better understanding of these processes can significantly contribute to the development of these targeted strategies for disease prevention and treatment.

The bacterial virulence factor NleA undergoes host-mediated O-linked glycosylation

Enterohaemorrhagic and enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EHEC and EPEC) are gastrointestinal pathogens responsible for severe diarrheal illness. EHEC and EPEC form "attaching and effacing" lesions during colonization and, upon adherence, inject proteins directly into host intestinal cells via the type III secretion system (T3SS). Injected bacterial proteins have a variety of functions but generally alter host cell biology to favor survival and/or replication of the pathogen. Non-LEE-encoded effector A (NleA) is a T3SS-injected effector of EHEC, EPEC, and the related mouse pathogen Citrobacter rodentium. Studies in mouse models indicate that NleA has an important role in bacterial virulence. However, the mechanism by which NleA contributes to disease remains unknown. We have determined that the following translocation into host cells, a serine and threonine-rich region of NleA is modified by host-mediated mucin-type O-linked glycosylation. Surprisingly, this region was not present in several clinical EHEC isolates. When expressed in C. rodentium, a non-modifiable variant of NleA was indistinguishable from wildtype NleA in an acute mortality model but conferred a modest increase in persistence over the course of infection in mixed infections in C57BL/6J mice. This is the first known example of a bacterial effector being modified by host-mediated O-linked glycosylation. Our data also suggests that this modification may confer a selective disadvantage to the bacteria during in vivo infection.

Effects of Zhishi Daozhi Decoction on the intestinal flora of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease mice induced by a high-fat diet

Background and aims

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common type of chronic liver disease with a high incidence, and the situation is not optimistic. Intestinal flora imbalance is strongly correlated with NAFLD pathogenesis. Zhishi Daozhi Decoction (ZDD) is a water decoction of the herbs used in the classical Chinese medicine prescription Zhishi Daozhi Pills. Zhishi Daozhi Pills has shown promising hepatoprotective and hypolipidemic properties, but its specific mechanism remains unclear.

Methods

Mice were fed on a high fat-rich diet (HFD) for ten weeks, and then the animals were administrated ZDD through oral gavage for four weeks. The serum liver function and blood lipid indexes of the mice were then tested using an automatic biochemical analyzer. H&E and Oil Red O staining were used to observe the pathological conditions of mice liver tissue, and 16S rRNA sequencing technology was used to analyze the changes in intestinal flora of mice. The concentration of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the gut of mice was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The expression of tight junction (TJ) proteins between ileal mucosal epithelial cells was analyzed using the immunofluorescence technique.

Results

ZDD was found to reduce the bodyweight of NAFLD mice, reduce serum TG, CHO, ALT, and AST levels, reduce fat accumulation in liver tissue, make the structure of intestinal flora comparable to the control group, and increase the concentration of intestinal SCFAs. It was also found to increase the expression of TJ proteins such as occludin and ZO-1, making them comparable to the control group.

Conclusions

ZDD has a therapeutic effect on NAFLD mice induced by HFD, which may act by optimizing the intestinal flora structure.

The interaction among gut microbes, the intestinal barrier and short chain fatty acids

The mammalian gut is inhabited by a massive and complicated microbial community, in which the host achieves a stable symbiotic environment through the interdependence, coordination, reciprocal constraints and participation in an immune response. The interaction between the host gut and the microbiota is essential for maintaining and achieving the homeostasis of the organism. Consequently, gut homeostasis is pivotal in safeguarding the growth and development and potential productive performance of the host. As metabolites of microorganisms, short chain fatty acids are not only the preferred energy metabolic feedstock for host intestinal epithelial cells, but also exert vital effects on antioxidants and the regulation of intestinal community homeostasis. Herein, we summarize the effects of intestinal microorganisms on the host gut and the mechanisms of action of short chain fatty acids on the four intestinal barriers of the organism, which will shed light on the manipulation of the intestinal community to achieve precise nutrition for specific individuals and provide a novel perspective for the prevention and treatment of diseases.

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) Recruitment of PAR Polarity Protein Atypical PKCζ to Pedestals and Cell-Cell Contacts Precedes Disruption of Tight Junctions in Intestinal Epithelial Cells

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) uses a type three secretion system to inject effector proteins into host intestinal epithelial cells, causing diarrhea. EPEC induces the formation of pedestals underlying attached bacteria, disrupts tight junction (TJ) structure and function, and alters apico-basal polarity by redistributing the polarity proteins Crb3 and Pals1, although the mechanisms are unknown. Here we investigate the temporal relationship of PAR polarity complex and TJ disruption following EPEC infection. EPEC recruits active aPKCζ, a PAR polarity protein, to actin within pedestals and at the plasma membrane prior to disrupting TJ. The EPEC effector EspF binds the endocytic protein sorting nexin 9 (SNX9). This interaction impacts actin pedestal organization, recruitment of active aPKCζ to actin at cell–cell borders, endocytosis of JAM-A S285 and occludin, and TJ barrier function. Collectively, data presented herein support the hypothesis that EPEC-induced perturbation of TJ is a downstream effect of disruption of the PAR complex and that EspF binding to SNX9 contributes to this phenotype. aPKCζ phosphorylates polarity and TJ proteins and participates in actin dynamics. Therefore, the early recruitment of aPKCζ to EPEC pedestals and increased interaction with actin at the membrane may destabilize polarity complexes ultimately resulting in perturbation of TJ.

EspF is crucial for Citrobacter rodentium-induced tight junction disruption and lethality in immunocompromised animals

Attaching/Effacing (A/E) bacteria include human pathogens enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC), enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), and their murine equivalent Citrobacter rodentium (CR), of which EPEC and EHEC are important causative agents of foodborne diseases worldwide. While A/E pathogen infections cause mild symptoms in the immunocompetent hosts, an increasing number of studies show that they produce more severe morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised and/or immunodeficient hosts. However, the pathogenic mechanisms and crucial host-pathogen interactions during A/E pathogen infections under immunocompromised conditions remain elusive. We performed a functional screening by infecting interleukin-22 (IL-22) knockout (Il22-/-) mice with a library of randomly mutated CR strains. Our screen reveals that interruption of the espF gene, which encodes the Type III Secretion System effector EspF (E. coli secreted protein F) conserved among A/E pathogens, completely abolishes the high mortality rates in CR-infected Il22-/- mice. Chromosomal deletion of espF in CR recapitulates the avirulent phenotype without impacting colonization and proliferation of CR, and EspF complement in ΔespF strain fully restores the virulence in mice. Moreover, the expression levels of the espF gene are elevated during CR infection and CR induces disruption of the tight junction (TJ) strands in colonic epithelium in an EspF-dependent manner. Distinct from EspF, chromosomal deletion of other known TJ-damaging effector genes espG and map failed to impede CR virulence in Il22-/- mice. Hence our findings unveil a critical pathophysiological function for EspF during CR infection in the immunocompromised host and provide new insights into the complex pathogenic mechanisms of A/E pathogens.

Newly synthesized claudins but not occludin are added to the basal side of the tight junction

A network of claudin strands creates continuous cell–cell contacts to form the intercellular tight junction barrier; a second protein, occludin, is associated along these strands. The physiological barrier remains stable despite protein turnover, which involves removal and replacement of claudins both in the steady state and during junction remodeling. Here we use a pulse–block–pulse labeling protocol with fluorescent ligands to label SNAP/CLIP-tags fused to claudins and occludin to identify their spatial trafficking pathways and kinetics in Madin–Darby canine kidney monolayers. We find that claudins are first delivered to the lateral membrane and, over time, enter the junction strand network from the basal side; this is followed by slow replacement of older claudins in the strands. In contrast, even at early times, newly synthesized occludin is found throughout the network. Taking the results together with our previous documentation of the mechanism for claudin strand assembly in a fibroblast model, we speculate that newly synthesized claudins are added at strand breaks and free ends; these are most common in the basalmost edge of the junction. In contrast, occludin can be added directly within the strand network. We further demonstrate that claudin trafficking and half-life depend on carboxy-terminal sequences and that different claudins compete for tight junction localization.

Transcriptional response of bean bug (Riptortus pedestris) upon infection with entomopathogenic fungus, Beauveria bassiana JEF-007

BACKGROUND

Entomopathogenic Beauveria bassiana has been used as a biocontrol agent for insect pests, but its effect at the molecular level on the hosts has not been studied in detail. Herein, we performed transcriptome analysis of bean bug, Riptortus pedestris (Hemiptera: Alydidae) in response to infection with a highly virulent strain of B. bassiana JEF-007 (Bb JEF-007).

RESULTS

Based on RNA-seq data from R. pedestris infected with Bb JEF-007 compared with non-infected bean bugs, infection was assumed to strongly activate (i) the energy production pathway by expressing dehydrogenases, (ii) metabolic pathways by expressing secreted proteins, GTPase, MBF2 transcription factor family, pigment-dispersing factor, antioxidants, and cuticle proteins, and (iii) the immune response pathway by expressing serine-threonine kinase in Toll pathway of bean bug.

CONCLUSION

We have established the platform for functional studies of the genes required for an immune response against entomopathogenic fungi like B. bassiana in the bean bug, R. pedestris. Moreover, this study also paves the way for genetic modification of B. bassiana to combat with the defense mechanism of R. pedestris. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

COPII-dependent ER export in animal cells: adaptation and control for diverse cargo

The export of newly synthesized proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum is fundamental to the ongoing maintenance of cell and tissue structure and function. After co-translational translocation into the ER, proteins destined for downstream intracellular compartments or secretion from the cell are sorted and packaged into transport vesicles by the COPII coat protein complex. The fundamental discovery and characterization of the pathway has now been augmented by a greater understanding of the role of COPII in diverse aspects of cell function. We now have a deep understanding of how COPII contributes to the trafficking of diverse cargoes including extracellular matrix molecules, developmental signalling proteins, and key metabolic factors such as lipoproteins. Structural and functional studies have shown that the COPII coat is both highly flexible and subject to multiple modes of regulation. This has led to new discoveries defining roles of COPII in development, autophagy, and tissue organization. Many of these newly emerging features of the canonical COPII pathway are placed in a context of procollagen secretion because of the fundamental interest in how a coat complex that typically generates 80-nm transport vesicles can package a cargo reported to be over 300 nm. Here we review the current understanding of COPII and assess the current consensus on its role in packaging diverse cargo proteins.

Sec24C-Dependent Transport of Claudin-1 Regulates Hepatitis C Virus Entry

Claudin-1 is a hepatitis C virus (HCV) coreceptor required for viral entry. Although extensive studies have focused on claudin-1 as an anti-HCV target, little is known about how the level of claudin-1 at the cell surface is regulated by host vesicular transport. Here, we identified an interaction between claudin-1 and Sec24C, a cargo-sorting component of the coat protein complex II (COPII) vesicular transport system. By interacting with Sec24C through its C-terminal YV, claudin-1 is transported from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and is eventually targeted to the cell surface. Blocking COPII transport inhibits HCV entry by reducing the level of claudin-1 at the cell surface. These findings provide mechanistic insight into the role of COPII vesicular transport in HCV entry.IMPORTANCE Tight junction protein claudin-1 is one of the cellular receptors for hepatitis C virus, which infects 185 million people globally. Its cellular distribution plays important role in HCV entry; however, it is unclear how the localization of claudin-1 to the cell surface is controlled by host transport pathways. In this paper, we not only identified Sec24C as a key host factor for HCV entry but also uncovered a novel mechanism by which the COPII machinery transports claudin-1 to the cell surface. This mechanism might be extended to other claudins that contain a C-terminal YV or V motif.

Modulation of epithelial cell polarity by bacterial pathogens

Epithelial cells constitute a physical barrier that aids in protecting the host from microbial pathogens. Polarized epithelial cells contain distinct apical and basolateral membrane domains separated by intercellular junctions, including tight junctions (TJs), which contribute to the maintenance of apical-basal polarity. Polarity complexes also contribute to the establishment of TJ formation. Several pathogens perturb epithelial TJ barrier function and structure in addition to causing a loss of apical-basal polarity. Here, we review the impact of pathogenic bacteria on the disruption of cell-cell junctions and epithelial polarity.

Tight Junction Disruption Induced by Type 3 Secretion System Effectors Injected by Enteropathogenic and Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli

The intestinal epithelium consists of a single cell layer, which is a critical selectively permeable barrier to both absorb nutrients and avoid the entry of potentially harmful entities, including microorganisms. Epithelial cells are held together by the apical junctional complexes, consisting of adherens junctions, and tight junctions (TJs), and by underlying desmosomes. TJs lay in the apical domain of epithelial cells and are mainly composed by transmembrane proteins such as occludin, claudins, JAMs, and tricellulin, that are associated with the cytoplasmic plaque formed by proteins from the MAGUK family, such as ZO-1/2/3, connecting TJ to the actin cytoskeleton, and cingulin and paracingulin connecting TJ to the microtubule network. Extracellular bacteria such as EPEC and EHEC living in the intestinal lumen inject effectors proteins directly from the bacterial cytoplasm to the host cell cytoplasm, where they play a relevant role in the manipulation of the eukaryotic cell functions by modifying or blocking cell signaling pathways. TJ integrity depends on various cell functions such as actin cytoskeleton, microtubule network for vesicular trafficking, membrane integrity, inflammation, and cell survival. EPEC and EHEC effectors target most of these functions. Effectors encoded inside or outside of locus of enterocyte effacement (LEE) disrupt the TJ strands. EPEC and EHEC exploit the TJ dynamics to open this structure, for causing diarrhea. EPEC and EHEC secrete effectors that mimic host proteins to manipulate the signaling pathways, including those related to TJ dynamics. In this review, we focus on the known mechanisms exploited by EPEC and EHEC effectors for causing TJ disruption.

Host endoplasmic reticulum COPII proteins control cell-to-cell spread of the bacterial pathogen Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes is a food-borne pathogen that uses actin-dependent motility to spread between human cells. Cell-to-cell spread involves the formation by motile bacteria of plasma membrane-derived structures termed 'protrusions'. In cultured enterocytes, the secreted Listeria protein InlC promotes protrusion formation by binding and inhibiting the human scaffolding protein Tuba. Here we demonstrate that protrusions are controlled by human COPII components that direct trafficking from the endoplasmic reticulum. Co-precipitation experiments indicated that the COPII proteins Sec31A and Sec13 interact directly with a Src homology 3 domain in Tuba. This interaction was antagonized by InlC. Depletion of Sec31A or Sec13 restored normal protrusion formation to a Listeria mutant lacking inlC, without affecting spread of wild-type bacteria. Genetic impairment of the COPII component Sar1 or treatment of cells with brefeldin A affected protrusions similarly to Sec31A or Sec13 depletion. These findings indicated that InlC relieves a host-mediated restriction of Listeria spread otherwise imposed by COPII. Inhibition of Sec31A, Sec13 or Sar1 or brefeldin A treatment also perturbed the structure of cell-cell junctions. Collectively, these findings demonstrate an important role for COPII in controlling Listeria spread. We propose that COPII may act by delivering host proteins that generate tension at cell junctions.

The role of epithelial tight junctions involved in pathogen infections

Tight junctions (TJs) are sealing complexes between adjacent epithelial cells, functioning by controlling paracellular passage and maintaining cell polarity. These functions of TJs are primarily based on structural integrity as well as dynamic regulatory balance, indicating plasticity of TJ in response to external stimuli. An indispensable role of TJs involved in pathogen infection has been widely demonstrated since disruption of TJs leads to a distinct increase in paracellular permeability and polarity defects which facilitate viral or bacterial entry and spread. In addition to pathological changes in TJ integrity, TJ proteins such as occludin and claudins can either function as receptors for pathogen entry or interact with viral/bacterial effector molecules as an essential step for characterizing an infective stage. This suggests a more complicated role for TJ itself and especially specific TJ components. Thus, this review surveys the role of the epithelial TJs involved in various pathogen infections, and extends TJ targeted therapeutic and pharmacological application prospects.