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Maserumule C, Passemar C, Oh OSH, Hegyi K, Brown K, Weimann A, Dinan A, Davila S, Klapholz C, Bryant J, Verma D, Gadwa J, Krishnananthasivam S, Vongtongsalee K, Kendall E, Trelles A, Hibberd ML, Sanz J, Bertol J, Vázquez-Iniesta L, Andi K, Kumar SS, Ordway D, Prados-Rosales R, MacAry PA, Floto RA. Phagosomal RNA sensing through TLR8 controls susceptibility to tuberculosis. Cell Rep 2025; 44:115657. [PMID: 40338743 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2025.115657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2024] [Revised: 01/13/2025] [Accepted: 04/15/2025] [Indexed: 05/10/2025] Open
Abstract
Genetic determinants of susceptibility to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) remain poorly understood but could provide insights into critical pathways involved in infection, informing host-directed therapies and enabling risk stratification at individual and population levels. Through a genome-wide forward genetic screen, we identify Toll-like receptor 8 (TLR8) as a key regulator of intracellular killing of Mtb. Pharmacological TLR8 activation enhances the killing of phylogenetically diverse clinical isolates of drug-susceptible and multidrug-resistant Mtb by macrophages and during in vivo infection in mice. TLR8 is activated by phagosomal mycobacterial RNA released by extracellular membrane vesicles and enhances xenophagy-dependent Mtb killing. We find that the TLR8 variant M1V, common in Far Eastern populations, enhances intracellular killing of Mtb through preferential signal-dependent trafficking to phagosomes. TLR8 signaling may, therefore, both regulate susceptibility to tuberculosis and provide novel drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Maserumule
- Molecular Immunity Unit, University of Cambridge Department of Medicine, MRC-Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK
| | - Charlotte Passemar
- Molecular Immunity Unit, University of Cambridge Department of Medicine, MRC-Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK; Victor Philip Dahdaleh Heart & Lung Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Olivia S H Oh
- Department of Microbiology, The Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kriztina Hegyi
- Molecular Immunity Unit, University of Cambridge Department of Medicine, MRC-Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK
| | - Karen Brown
- Molecular Immunity Unit, University of Cambridge Department of Medicine, MRC-Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK; Victor Philip Dahdaleh Heart & Lung Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Cambridge Centre for Lung Infection, Royal Papworth Hospital, Cambridge, UK
| | - Aaron Weimann
- Molecular Immunity Unit, University of Cambridge Department of Medicine, MRC-Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK; Victor Philip Dahdaleh Heart & Lung Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Cambridge Centre for AI in Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Adam Dinan
- Molecular Immunity Unit, University of Cambridge Department of Medicine, MRC-Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK; Victor Philip Dahdaleh Heart & Lung Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Cambridge Centre for AI in Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Sonia Davila
- Infectious Disease Group, Genome Institute of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore; SingHealth Duke-NUS Institute of Precision Medicine, SingHealth Duke-NUS Genomic, Medicine Centre, Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disorder Program, Duke-NUS Medical, School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Catherine Klapholz
- Molecular Immunity Unit, University of Cambridge Department of Medicine, MRC-Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK
| | - Josephine Bryant
- Molecular Immunity Unit, University of Cambridge Department of Medicine, MRC-Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK; Cambridge Centre for AI in Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Deepshikha Verma
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Jacob Gadwa
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Shivankari Krishnananthasivam
- Department of Microbiology, The Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kridakorn Vongtongsalee
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Edward Kendall
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Andres Trelles
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Martin L Hibberd
- Infectious Disease Group, Genome Institute of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Joaquín Sanz
- Institute for Bio-computation and Physics of Complex Systems BIFI, Department of Theoretical Physics, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Jorge Bertol
- Institute for Bio-computation and Physics of Complex Systems BIFI, Department of Theoretical Physics, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Lucia Vázquez-Iniesta
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Public Health and Microbiology, School of Medicine, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Kaliappan Andi
- ICMR-National Institute for Research in Tuberculosis, Chennai, India
| | - S Siva Kumar
- ICMR-National Institute for Research in Tuberculosis, Chennai, India
| | - Diane Ordway
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Rafael Prados-Rosales
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Public Health and Microbiology, School of Medicine, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Paul A MacAry
- Department of Microbiology, The Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - R Andres Floto
- Molecular Immunity Unit, University of Cambridge Department of Medicine, MRC-Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK; Victor Philip Dahdaleh Heart & Lung Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Cambridge Centre for Lung Infection, Royal Papworth Hospital, Cambridge, UK; Cambridge Centre for AI in Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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Shah PT, Xing L. The anti-mycobacterial potential of ibuprofen. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2025; 152:102638. [DOI: https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.tube.2025.102638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/30/2025]
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Shah PT, Xing L. The anti-mycobacterial potential of ibuprofen. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2025; 152:102638. [PMID: 40188657 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2025.102638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2024] [Revised: 02/12/2025] [Accepted: 04/01/2025] [Indexed: 05/04/2025]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ibuprofen (IBU) is a non-prescription analgesic drug from the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug class. It is widely used for treating pain, fever, and inflammation. Both the in silico and in vitro experiments were performed to determine the antibacterial potentials of the IBU against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). METHODS The STITCH v.5 pipeline was used to analyze the interaction of IBU with the proteome of the Mtb H37Ra and H37Rv strains. The GFP-tagged Bacillus Calmette Guerin (BCG) and td-tomato-tagged Mtb H37Ra were used to determine the bacteriostatic and bactericidal activities of IBU. The IBU-treated THP-1-derived macrophages were infected by td-tomato-tagged Mtb H37Ra and wild-type BCG to analyze the effects of IBU on bacterial phagocytosis and apoptosis, respectively. RESULTS The in-silico study revealed that the IBU interacts with Mtb proteins primarily involved in cellular process, metabolism, and virulence, and targets four virulent proteins of Mtb, e.g., Cyp-123, Cyp-126, Cyp-130, and Cyp-139 in the cytochrome p450 system. The increasing concentrations of IBU showed significant bacteriostatic activity against Mtb H37Ra in vitro, where the 100 μg/ml and 200 μg/ml concentrations especially led to almost complete bacterial growth arrest. The IBU treatment does not affect BCG-induced apoptosis of THP-1-derived macrophages, but significantly enhances bacterial uptake, especially at 100 μg/ml and 200 μg/ml concentrations. CONCLUSIONS The IBU enhances Mtb uptake by macrophages and exhibits direct bacteriostatic activity in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pir Tariq Shah
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan, 030006, China; Faculty of Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, No. 2 Linggong Road, Dalian, 116024, China; Shandong Laboratory of Yantai Drug Discovery, Bohai Rim Advanced Research Institute for Drug Discovery, Yantai, 264000, China
| | - Li Xing
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan, 030006, China; Shanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Cell Biology, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan, 030006, China.
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Wei L, Liu L, Meng Z, Qi K, Gao X, Feng J, Luo J. Recognition of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by macrophage Toll-like receptor and its role in autophagy. Inflamm Res 2024; 73:753-770. [PMID: 38563966 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-024-01864-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The pathogen responsible for tuberculosis is called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Its interaction with macrophages has a significant impact on the onset and progression of the disease. METHODS The respiratory pathway allows Mycobacterium tuberculosis to enter the body's lungs where it battles immune cells before being infected latently or actively. In the progress of tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis activates the body's immune system and creates inflammatory factors, which cause tissue inflammation to infiltrate and the creation of granulomas, which seriously harms the body. Toll-like receptors of macrophage can mediate host recognition of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, initiate immune responses, and participate in macrophage autophagy. New host-directed therapeutic approaches targeting autophagy for drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis have emerged, providing new ideas for the effective treatment of tuberculosis. CONCLUSIONS In-depth understanding of the mechanisms by which macrophage autophagy interacts with intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis, as well as the study of potent and specific autophagy-regulating molecules, will lead to much-needed advances in drug discovery and vaccine design, which will improve the prevention and treatment of human tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linna Wei
- Department of Immunology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China
| | - Liping Liu
- Department of Immunology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China
| | - Zudi Meng
- Department of Immunology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China
| | - Kai Qi
- Department of Immunology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China
| | - Xuehan Gao
- Department of Immunology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China
| | - Jihong Feng
- Department of Oncology, Lishui People's Hospital, Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Lishui, 323000, Zhejiang, China
| | - Junmin Luo
- Department of Immunology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China.
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Schorey JS, Vecchio J, McManus WR, Ongalo J, Webber K. Activation of host nucleic acid sensors by Mycobacterium: good for us or good for them? Crit Rev Microbiol 2024; 50:224-240. [PMID: 38153209 PMCID: PMC10985831 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2023.2294904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
Although the importance of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) sensors in controlling viral infection is well established, their role in promoting an effective immune response to pathogens other than viruses is less clear. This is particularly true for infections with mycobacteria, as studies point to both protective and detrimental roles for activation of nucleic acid sensors in controlling a mycobacterial infection. Some of the contradiction likely stems from the use of different model systems and different mycobacterial species/strains as well as from which nucleic acid sensors were studied and what downstream effectors were evaluated. In this review, we will describe the different nucleic acid sensors that have been studied in the context of mycobacterial infections, and how the different studies compare. We conclude with a section on how nucleic acid sensor agonists have been used therapeutically and what further information is needed to enhance their potential as therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffery S. Schorey
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
| | - Joseph Vecchio
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
| | - William R. McManus
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
| | - Joshua Ongalo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
| | - Kylie Webber
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
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Shah PT, Tufail M, Wu C, Xing L. THP-1 cell line model for tuberculosis: A platform for in vitro macrophage manipulation. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2022; 136:102243. [PMID: 35963145 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2022.102243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are large mononuclear phagocytic cells that play a vital role in the immune response. They are present in all body tissues with extremely heterogeneous and plastic phenotypes that adapt to the organs and tissues in which they live and respond in the first-line against invading microorganisms. Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by the pathogenic bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), which is among the top 10 global infectious agents and the leading cause of mortality, ranking above human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), as a single infectious agent. Macrophages, upon Mtb infection, not only phagocytose the bacteria and present the antigens to T-cells, but also react rapidly by developing antimycobacterial immune response depending highly on the production of cytokines. However, Mtb is also capable of intracellular survival in instances of sub-optimal activation of macrophages. Hence, several systems have been established to evaluate the Mtb-macrophage interaction, where the THP-1 monocytes have been developed as an attractive model for in vitro polarized monocyte-derived macrophages. This model is extensively used for Mtb as well as other intracellular bacterial studies. Herein, we have summarized the updated implications of the THP-1 model for TB-related studies and discussed the pros and cons compared to other cell models of TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pir Tariq Shah
- Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan, 030006, Shanxi province, China
| | - Muhammad Tufail
- Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan, 030006, Shanxi province, China
| | - Changxin Wu
- Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan, 030006, Shanxi province, China; The Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Cell Biology of Shanxi Province, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan, 030006, China; Shanxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Prevention and Treatment of Major Infectious Diseases, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Li Xing
- Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan, 030006, Shanxi province, China; The Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Cell Biology of Shanxi Province, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan, 030006, China; Shanxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Prevention and Treatment of Major Infectious Diseases, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan, 030006, China.
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RNA Sensing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Its Impact on TB Vaccination Strategies. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8010067. [PMID: 32033104 PMCID: PMC7158685 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8010067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 02/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is still an important global threat and although the causing organism has been discovered long ago, effective prevention strategies are lacking. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) is a unique pathogen with a complex host interaction. Understanding the immune responses upon infection with MTB is crucial for the development of new vaccination strategies and therapeutic targets for TB. Recently, it has been proposed that sensing bacterial nucleic acid in antigen-presenting cells via intracellular pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) is a central mechanism for initiating an effective host immune response. Here, we summarize key findings of the impact of mycobacterial RNA sensing for innate and adaptive host immunity after MTB infection, with emphasis on endosomal toll-like receptors (TLRs) and cytosolic sensors such as NLRP3 and RLRs, modulating T-cell differentiation through IL-12, IL-21, and type I interferons. Ultimately, these immunological pathways may impact immune memory and TB vaccine efficacy. The novel findings described here may change our current understanding of the host response to MTB and potentially impact clinical research, as well as future vaccination design. In this review, the current state of the art is summarized, and an outlook is given on how progress can be made.
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Tang J, Sun M, Shi G, Xu Y, Han Y, Li X, Dong W, Zhan L, Qin C. Toll-Like Receptor 8 Agonist Strengthens the Protective Efficacy of ESAT-6 Immunization to Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection. Front Immunol 2018; 8:1972. [PMID: 29416532 PMCID: PMC5787779 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests important functions for human Toll-like receptor 8 in vivo in tuberculosis and autoimmune diseases. However, these studies are limited by the lack of specific agonists and by the fact that the homology of TLR8 in human and mice is not sufficient to rely on mouse models. In this study, we examined the role of human TLR8 in the disease progression of experimental Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection, as well as the benefits provided by a TLR8 agonist against Mtb challenge in a human TLR8 transgenic mouse. We found that the expression of human TLR8 in C57BL/6 mice permits higher bacilli load in tissues. A vaccine formulated with ESAT-6, aluminum hydroxide, and TLR8 agonist provided protection against Mtb challenge, with a high percentage of CD44hiCD62Lhi TCM. Using ovalbumin as a model antigen, we demonstrated that the activation of TLR8 enhanced the innate and adaptive immune response, and provided a sustained TCM formation and Th1 type humoral response, which were mainly mediated by type I IFN signaling. Further research is required to optimize the vaccine formulation and seek optimal combinations of different TLR agonists, such as TLR4, for better adjuvanticity in this animal model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Tang
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS), Comparative Medicine Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Tuberculosis Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS), Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Models of Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Mengmeng Sun
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS), Comparative Medicine Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China
| | - Guiying Shi
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS), Comparative Medicine Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China
| | - Yanfeng Xu
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS), Comparative Medicine Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China
| | - Yunlin Han
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS), Comparative Medicine Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China
| | - Xiang Li
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS), Comparative Medicine Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Dong
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS), Comparative Medicine Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China
| | - Lingjun Zhan
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS), Comparative Medicine Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Tuberculosis Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS), Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Models of Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Chuan Qin
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS), Comparative Medicine Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Tuberculosis Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS), Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Models of Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases, Beijing, China
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