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De la Mora A, Goodwin PH, Morfin N, Petukhova T, Guzman-Novoa E. Diversity of Potential Resistance Mechanisms in Honey Bees ( Apis mellifera) Selected for Low Population Growth of the Parasitic Mite, Varroa destructor. INSECTS 2025; 16:385. [PMID: 40332899 PMCID: PMC12027846 DOI: 10.3390/insects16040385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2025] [Revised: 03/13/2025] [Accepted: 03/31/2025] [Indexed: 05/08/2025]
Abstract
Honey bees (Apis mellifera) bred for resistance to the parasitic mite, Varroa destructor, were examined for potential Varroa resistance mechanisms following bidirectional selection for low (resistant) or high (susceptible) Varroa population growth (LVG and HVG, respectively) based on mite fall in colonies at two different time points. Hygienic and grooming behavior rates in LVG colonies were significantly higher than those in HVG colonies for two out of three generations of selection, indicating that behavioral resistance to the mite increased. For the third generation, grooming start time was significantly shorter, and grooming intensity more frequent in LVG bees than in HVG bees. Cellular immunity was increased as well, based on significantly higher haemocyte concentrations in non-parasitized and Varroa-parasitized LVG bees. Humoral immunity was increased with Varroa-parasitized LVG bees, which had significantly higher expression of the antimicrobial peptide gene, hymenoptaecin 2. In addition, antiviral resistance may be involved as there were significantly lower levels of deformed wing virus (DWV) in Varroa-parasitized LVG bees. While selection for LVG and HVG bees was solely based on Varroa population growth, it appears that behavioral, cellular, and humoral mechanisms were all selected along with this resistance. Thus, LVG resistance appears to be a multi-gene trait, involving multiple resistance mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvaro De la Mora
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Paul H. Goodwin
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; (P.H.G.); (E.G.-N.)
| | - Nuria Morfin
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Manitoba, 12 Dafoe Road, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada;
| | - Tatiana Petukhova
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada;
| | - Ernesto Guzman-Novoa
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; (P.H.G.); (E.G.-N.)
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You Y, Xiao J, Chen J, Li Y, Li R, Zhang S, Jiang Q, Liu P. Integrated Information for Pathogenicity and Treatment of Spiroplasma. Curr Microbiol 2024; 81:252. [PMID: 38953991 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-024-03730-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
Spiroplasma, belonging to the class Mollicutes, is a small, helical, motile bacterium lacking a cell wall. Its host range includes insects, plants, and aquatic crustaceans. Recently, a few human cases of Spiroplasma infection have been reported. The diseases caused by Spiroplasma have brought about serious economic losses and hindered the healthy development of agriculture. The pathogenesis of Spiroplasma involves the ability to adhere, such as through the terminal structure of Spiroplasma, colonization, and invasive enzymes. However, the exact pathogenic mechanism of Spiroplasma remains a mystery. Therefore, we systematically summarize all the information about Spiroplasma in this review article. This provides a reference for future studies on virulence factors and treatment strategies of Spiroplasma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixue You
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Basic Medical School, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Jianmin Xiao
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Basic Medical School, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Jiaxin Chen
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Basic Medical School, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Yuxin Li
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Basic Medical School, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Rong Li
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Basic Medical School, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Siyuan Zhang
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Basic Medical School, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
- Freshwater Fisheries Research Institute of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing, 210017, China
| | - Qichen Jiang
- Freshwater Fisheries Research Institute of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing, 210017, China.
| | - Peng Liu
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Basic Medical School, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China.
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, China.
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Liu H, Wei X, Ye X, Zhang H, Yang K, Shi W, Zhang J, Jashenko R, Ji R, Hu H. The immune response of Locusta migratoria manilensis at different times of infection with Paranosema locustae. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 114:e22055. [PMID: 37786392 DOI: 10.1002/arch.22055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Paranosema locustae is an entomopathogenic microsporidia with promising potential for controlling agricultural pests, including Locusta migratoria manilensis. However, it has the disadvantage of having a slow insecticidal rate, and how P. locustae infection impacts the host immune response is currently unknown. The present study investigated the effect of P. locustae on the natural immune response of L. migratoria and the activities of enzymes that protect against oxidative stress. Infection with P. locustae increased the hemocytes and nodulation number of L. migratoria at the initial stage of infection. The hemocyte-mediated modulation of immune response was also affected by a decrease in the number of hemocytes 12 days postinfection. Superoxide dismutase activity in locusts increased in the early stages of infection but decreased in the later stages, whereas the activities of peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) showed opposite trends may be due to their different mechanisms of action. Furthermore, the transcription levels of mRNA of antimicrobial peptide-related genes and phenoloxidase activity in hemolymph in L. migratoria were suppressed within 15 days of P. locustae infection. Overall, our data suggest that P. locustae create a conducive environment for its own proliferation in the host by disrupting the immune defense against it. These findings provide useful information for the potential application of P. locustae as a biocontrol agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Liu
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaojia Wei
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaofang Ye
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Huihui Zhang
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Kun Yang
- Central for Prevention and Control of Prediction & Forecast Prevention of Locust and Rodent in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Wangpen Shi
- College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinrui Zhang
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Roman Jashenko
- Institute of Zoology RK93, Al-Farabi Ave., Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan
| | - Rong Ji
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongxia Hu
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
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Hu YW, Wang SH, Tang Y, Xie GQ, Ding YJ, Xu QY, Tang B, Zhang L, Wang SG. Suppression of yolk formation, oviposition and egg quality of locust (Locusta migratoria manilensis) infected by Paranosema locustae. Front Immunol 2022; 13:848267. [PMID: 35935997 PMCID: PMC9352533 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.848267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Locusta migratoria manilensis is one of the most important agricultural pests in China. The locust has high fecundity and consumes large quantities of food, causing severe damage to diverse crops such as corn, sorghum, and rice. Immunity against pathogens and reproductive success are two important components of individual fitness, and many insects have a trade-off between reproduction and immunity when resources are limited, which may be an important target for pest control. In this study, adult females L. migratoria manilensis were treated with different concentrations (5 × 106 spores/mL or 2 × 107 spores/mL) of the entomopathogenic fungus Paranosema locustae. Effects of input to immunity on reproduction were studied by measuring feeding amount, enzyme activity, vitellogenin (Vg) and vitellogenin receptor (VgR) production, ovary development, and oviposition amount. When infected by P. locustae, feeding rate and phenol oxidase and lysozyme activities increased, mRNA expression of Vg and VgR genes decreased, and yolk deposition was blocked. Weight of ovaries decreased, with significant decreases in egg, length and weight.Thus, locusts used nutritive input required for reproduction to resist invasion by microsporidia. This leads to a decrease in expression of Vg and VgR genes inhibited ovarian development, and greatly decreased total fecundity. P. locustae at 2 × 107 spores/mL had a more obvious inhibitory effect on the ovarian development in migratory locusts. This study provides a detailed trade-off between reproduction and immune input of the female, which provides a reliable basis to find pest targets for biological control from those trade-off processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao-Wen Hu
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shao-Hua Wang
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ya Tang
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Guo-Qiang Xie
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yan-Juan Ding
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qing-Ye Xu
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Bin Tang
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Long Zhang
- Department of Entomology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Shi-Gui Wang
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Shi-Gui Wang,
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Lv M, Wang S, Yin H, Dong K, Liu Y, Pan H, Lin Q, Cao Z. Probiotic Potential and Effects on Gut Microbiota Composition and Immunity of Indigenous Gut Lactobacilli in Apis cerana. Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins 2022; 14:252-262. [PMID: 35325390 DOI: 10.1007/s12602-022-09935-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the probiotic potential of gut indigenous lactic acid bacteria (LAB) originated from Apis cerana. Six Limosilactobacillus reuteri and one Lactobacillus helveticus were isolated from gut samples of A. cerana adult worker bee. All isolates antagonized the growth of pathogens including Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, Shigella flexneri, and Flavobacterium frigidimaris, and L. helveticus KM7 showed the greatest antimicrobial activity among them. All strains were sensitive to cefotaxime, amoxicillin, cephalothin, penicillin G, kanamycin, and vancomycin, moderately sensitive to novobiocin and resistant to gentamicin. Six out of seven strains were sensitive to ampicillin. L. helveticus KM7 was chosen to evaluate in vivo probiotic effect of adult worker bees of A. cerana through fed sucrose syrup supplemented with KM7. Administration of KM7 increased survival rate and gut LAB but decreased gut fungi and Enterococcus in honeybees. Expressions of genes related to antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) including Abaecin and Defensin were also induced in the gut of honeybees. The results suggested that L. helveticus KM7 with greater probiotic properties could improve the survival rate of adult worker honeybees of A. cerana through regulating gut microbiota and AMPs genes expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingkui Lv
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Heilongtan, North Suburb, 650201, People's Republic of China
| | - Sifan Wang
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Heilongtan, North Suburb, 650201, People's Republic of China
| | - Huajuan Yin
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Heilongtan, North Suburb, 650201, People's Republic of China
| | - Kun Dong
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Heilongtan, North Suburb, 650201, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiqiu Liu
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Heilongtan, North Suburb, 650201, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongbin Pan
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Heilongtan, North Suburb, 650201, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiuye Lin
- College of Food Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Heilongtan, North Suburb, 650201, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenhui Cao
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Heilongtan, North Suburb, 650201, People's Republic of China. .,Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, Heilongtan, North Suburb, 650201, People's Republic of China.
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Morfin N, Anguiano-Baez R, Guzman-Novoa E. Honey Bee (Apis mellifera) Immunity. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 2021; 37:521-533. [PMID: 34689918 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2021.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
At the individual level, honey bees (Apis mellifera) rely on innate immunity, which operates through cellular and humoral mechanisms, to defend themselves against infectious agents and parasites. At the colony level, honey bees have developed collective defense mechanisms against pathogens and pests, such as hygienic and grooming behaviors. An understanding of the immune responses of honey bees is critical to implement strategies to reduce mortality and increase colony productivity. The major components and mechanisms of individual and social immunity of honey bees are discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Morfin
- Research Associate, University of Guelph, School of Environmental Sciences, 50 Stone Road East, N1G 2W1, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Ricardo Anguiano-Baez
- Adjunct Professor, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Av. Universidad #3000, CU, Coyoacán, 04510, Mexico City, Mexico. https://twitter.com/richybat
| | - Ernesto Guzman-Novoa
- Professor and Head of the Honey Bee Research Centre, University of Guelph, School of Environmental Sciences, 50 Stone Road East, N1G 2W1, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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Gábor E, Cinege G, Csordás G, Rusvai M, Honti V, Kolics B, Török T, Williams MJ, Kurucz É, Andó I. Identification of reference markers for characterizing honey bee (Apis mellifera) hemocyte classes. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 109:103701. [PMID: 32320738 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2020.103701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cell mediated immunity of the honey bee (Apis mellifera) involves the activity of several hemocyte populations, currently defined by morphological features and lectin binding characteristics. The objective of the present study was to identify molecular markers capable of characterizing subsets of honey bee hemocytes. We developed and employed monoclonal antibodies with restricted reactions to functionally distinct hemocyte subpopulations. Melanizing cells, known as oenocytoids, were defined by an antibody to prophenoloxidase, aggregating cells were identified by the expression of Hemolectin, and phagocytic cells were identified by a marker expressed on granulocytes. We anticipate that this combination of antibodies not only allows for the detection of functionally distinct hemocyte subtypes, but will help to further the exploration of hematopoietic compartments, as well as reveal details of the honey bee cellular immune defense against parasites and microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Gábor
- Immunology Unit, Institute of Genetics, Biological Research Centre, P.O.Box 521, Szeged, H-6701, Hungary.
| | - Gyöngyi Cinege
- Immunology Unit, Institute of Genetics, Biological Research Centre, P.O.Box 521, Szeged, H-6701, Hungary.
| | - Gábor Csordás
- Immunology Unit, Institute of Genetics, Biological Research Centre, P.O.Box 521, Szeged, H-6701, Hungary.
| | - Miklós Rusvai
- University of Veterinary Medicine, 1078, Budapest, István u. 2., Hungary.
| | - Viktor Honti
- Immunology Unit, Institute of Genetics, Biological Research Centre, P.O.Box 521, Szeged, H-6701, Hungary.
| | - Balázs Kolics
- Department of Plant Science and Biotechnology, University of Pannonia, Georgikon Faculty, Deák F. u. 16., 8360, Keszthely, Hungary.
| | - Tibor Török
- Department of Genetics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, 6726, Szeged, Hungary.
| | - Michael J Williams
- Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, Box 593, 751 24, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Éva Kurucz
- Immunology Unit, Institute of Genetics, Biological Research Centre, P.O.Box 521, Szeged, H-6701, Hungary.
| | - István Andó
- Immunology Unit, Institute of Genetics, Biological Research Centre, P.O.Box 521, Szeged, H-6701, Hungary.
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Gonella E, Mandrioli M, Tedeschi R, Crotti E, Pontini M, Alma A. Activation of Immune Genes in Leafhoppers by Phytoplasmas and Symbiotic Bacteria. Front Physiol 2019; 10:795. [PMID: 31281266 PMCID: PMC6598074 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Insect immunity is a crucial process in interactions between host and microorganisms and the presence of pathogenic, commensal, or beneficial bacteria may result in different immune responses. In Hemiptera vectors of phytoplasmas, infected insects are amenable to carrying high loads of phytopathogens, besides hosting other bacterial affiliates, which have evolved different strategies to be retained; adaptation to host response and immunomodulation are key aspects of insect-symbiont interactions. Most of the analyses published to date has investigated insect immune response to pathogens, whereas few studies have focused on the role of host immunity in microbiota homeostasis and vectorial capacity. Here the expression of immune genes in the leafhopper vector of phytoplasmas Euscelidius variegatus was investigated following exposure to Asaia symbiotic bacteria, previously demonstrated to affect phytoplasma acquisition by leafhoppers. The expression of four genes related to major components of immunity was measured, i.e., defensin, phenoloxidase, kazal type 1 serine protease inhibitor and Raf, a component of the Ras/Raf pathway. The response was separately tested in whole insects, midguts and cultured hemocytes. Healthy individuals were assessed along with specimens undergoing early- and late-stage phytoplasma infection. In addition, the adhesion grade of Asaia strains was examined to assess whether symbionts could establish a physical barrier against phytoplasma colonization. Our results revealed a specific activation of Raf in midguts after double infection by Asaia and flavescence dorée phytoplasma. Increased expression was observed already in early stages of phytoplasma colonization. Gut-specific localization and timing of Raf activation are consistent with the role played by Asaia in limiting phytoplasma acquisition by E. variegatus, supporting the involvement of this gene in the anti-pathogen activity. However, limited attachment capability was found for Asaia under in vitro experimental conditions, suggesting a minor contribution of physical phytoplasma exclusion from the vector gut wall. By providing evidence of immune modulation played by Asaia, these results contribute to elucidating the molecular mechanisms regulating interference with phytoplasma infection in E. variegatus. The involvement of Raf suggests that in the presence of reduced immunity (reported in Hemipterans), immune genes can be differently regulated and recruited to play additional functions, generally played by genes lost by hemipterans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Gonella
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Alimentari (DISAFA), Università degli Studi di Torino, Grugliasco, Italy
| | - Mauro Mandrioli
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita (DSV), Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Rosemarie Tedeschi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Alimentari (DISAFA), Università degli Studi di Torino, Grugliasco, Italy
| | - Elena Crotti
- Dipartimento di Scienze per gli Alimenti, la Nutrizione e l'Ambiente (DeFENS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Marianna Pontini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Alimentari (DISAFA), Università degli Studi di Torino, Grugliasco, Italy
| | - Alberto Alma
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Alimentari (DISAFA), Università degli Studi di Torino, Grugliasco, Italy
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