Biofilm formation in erythromycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and the relationship with antimicrobial susceptibility and molecular characteristics

Baohuoside I targets SaeR as an antivirulence strategy to disrupt MRSA biofilm formation and pathogenicity

The emergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) represents a critical global health challenge, making the SaeRS two-component system (TCS), a key regulator of S. aureus virulence, an ideal target for novel therapeutic approaches. In this study, virtual screening and thermal shift assays identified Baohuoside I (BI), a flavonol glycoside, as a potent inhibitor of the SaeR response regulator. BI significantly attenuated S. aureus pathogenicity without bactericidal effects, suppressing the expression of key virulence factors, such as hemolysin A (Hla) and Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL), while modulating immune evasion pathways. Additionally, BI disrupted biofilm formation, promoting the development of porous, less structured biofilms. Biochemical assays, including EMSA, CETSA, fluorescence quenching, and SPR, confirmed strong binding interactions between SaeR and BI. In vivo, BI demonstrated therapeutic efficacy in Galleria mellonella and rat MRSA models. These findings establish BI as a promising lead for nonbactericidal therapies to combat MRSA infections and mitigate resistance.

Antimicrobials profiling, biofilm formation, and clonal lineage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from cockroaches

Cockroaches are widely recognized as vectors for transmitting pathogenic microorganisms in hospital and community environments due to their movement between contaminated and human-occupied spaces. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), particularly methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), is a primary global health concern because of its capacity to cause a wide range of infections and its resistance to many antibiotics. Despite efforts to control nosocomial infections, the role of cockroaches in disseminating antibiotic-resistant bacteria has not been fully explored. This study aims to investigate the antibiotic resistance patterns, biofilm formation, and genetic characteristics of S. aureus isolated from cockroaches in hospital environments. Understanding the role of cockroaches as vectors of drug-resistant S. aureus can contribute to developing more effective infection control strategies in healthcare settings. This study examined 386 cockroaches, including 230 American and 156 German cockroaches. Antibiotic sensitivity, inducible resistance, and biofilm formation were evaluated. The presence of mecA, ermA, ermB, ermC, msrA, icaA, icaB, icaC, icaD, SCCmec, mupA, mupB, and iles-1 genes was determined. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA typing was performed to determine genetic relatedness. Fifty S. aureus isolates were identified, with 48 % confirmed as MRSA. No isolate exhibited constitutive resistance to clindamycin. However, 96 % of the isolates displayed inducible clindamycin resistance (iMLSB phenotype) when tested using the D-test. The prevalence of icaA, icaB, icaC, and icaD genes were 34 %, 8 %, 0 %, and 0 %, respectively. So, 29.1 %, 16.6 %, 12.5 %, and 8.3 % of isolates had SCCmec gene cassettes of types I, II, III, and IV, respectively. The prevalence of ermA, ermB, ermC, and msrA genes was found to be 18 %, 16 %, 58 %, and 4 %, respectively. Seven different clusters were found in the RAPD-PCR, with cluster A (5 isolates) being the most common. These results show that cockroaches are important in transmitting resistance factors as mechanical vectors. Therefore, taking sanitary measures to control the insect population is unavoidable.

Baohuoside I inhibits virulence of multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by targeting the transcription Staphylococcus accessory regulator factor SarZ

BACKGROUND

Staphylococcus aureus is a versatile pathogen that can cause a wide range of infections in humans. Biofilms play a crucial role in the pathogenicity of S. aureus and contribute to its ability to cause persistent and chronic infections. Baohuoside I has garnered increasing recognition as a natural flavonol glycoside with a wide spectrum of health-related activities.

PURPOSE

The antibacterial and anti-biofilm properties of Baohuoside I have not been extensively investigated. Our study aimed to assess its inhibitory effects and the underlying mechanisms on biofilm formation and hemolytic capacity in S. aureus.

STUDY DESIGN/METHODS

The impact of Baohuoside I on the biofilm and virulence of S. aureus was evaluated through in vitro experiments and Galleria mellonella as an in vivo infection model. The mechanisms were explored by Drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS) and validated in genetic knockout strain and through molecular biological experiments using DARTS, molecular docking, electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA), and bio-layer interferometry (BLI).

RESULTS

Baohuoside I significantly inhibits the formation of S. aureus biofilms and hemolytic activity at 6.25 µM. Proteomics analysis revealed that treatment with Baohuoside I led to a reduction in the expression of quorum-sensing system agr-regulated genes. DARTS analysis identified Staphylococcus accessory regulator factor (SarZ), a key regulator involved in the expression of virulence factors in S. aureus by acting as activator of the agr quorum-sensing system, was the direct target of Baohuoside I. Molecular docking, DARTS, BLI and EMSA assays collectively confirmed the direct binding of Baohuoside I to SarZ, inhibiting its binding to downstream promoters. Furthermore, it is found through site-directed protein mutagenesis that the Tyr27 and Phe117 residues are key for Baohuoside I binding to SarZ. Additionally, the knockout of SarZ significantly diminished the hemolytic ability of S. aureus, underscoring its crucial role as a pivotal regulator of virulence. Lastly, in vivo tests utilizing the G. mellonella infection model demonstrated the efficacy of Baohuoside I.

CONCLUSION

This study provides valuable insights into the mechanism by which Baohuoside I inhibits the virulence of S. aureus through its interaction with SarZ. These findings highlight the significance of SarZ as an effective target against the virulence of S. aureus.

Characterization of Staphylococcus Species Isolates from Sheep Milk with Subclinical Mastitis: Antibiotic Resistance, Enterotoxins, and Biofilm Production

Subclinical mastitis represents one of the most contagious diseases affecting animals involved in dairy production systems. Although coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNSs) have been considered minor pathogens for many years, they have recently emerged as opportunistic pathogens in mastitis disorders. The objectives of this work were to assess the antimicrobial resistance profile and the ability to produce a biofilm in comparison with a reference strain and to search for genes related to biofilm production, antimicrobial resistance, and enterotoxins in 18 isolates of Staphylococcus species from the milk of sheep with subclinical mastitis, collected from different Sicilian farms. This knowledge is essential to provide basic information on the pathogenicity and virulence of staphylococcal species and their impact on animal health. All isolates were resistant to ampicillin, 88.8% to streptomycin, 77.7% to gentamicin, 44.4% to chloramphenicol, 27.7% to erythromycin, and 11.1% to tetracycline, and two isolates were strong biofilm producers. Antibiotic resistance gene profiling showed that 16.6% of isolates possess the blaZ gene, whereas the search of biofilm-associated genes revealed the occurrence of the sasC gene in 33.3% of isolates, the ica gene in 27.7%, and bap and agr (accessory gene regulator) genes in 16.6% of isolates. Altogether, the results of this study indicate that CoNSs can acquire virulence genes and could have a role as pathogens in subclinical mastitis.

Multidrug Efflux System-mediated resistance in Staphylococcus aureus under a One Health approach

The aim of the study was to track the spread of antimicrobial resistance among the different sectors of One Health through the detection of Multidrug-Efflux-System in multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) and methicillin-resistant (MRSA) S. aureus isolates were selected: 25 of human, one of animal and eight of food origin. The efflux system genes norA, norB, norC, LmrS, tet38 and msrA were screened by PCR. The activity of the efflux systems was determined by the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of tetracycline and ciprofloxacin in the presence and absence of CCCP and in the quantification of ethidium bromide efflux. Furthermore, biofilm formation was determined in the presence and absence of the CCCP. The molecular epidemiology of the isolates was traced with the aid of PFGE. The gene norC was the most prevalent, detected in all isolates and msrA was the least prevalent, detected in only two isolates from humans. There was no difference in the MICs of tetracycline and ciprofloxacin in the presence of CCCP, but 55.9% of isolates showed ethidium bromide efflux. The presence of CCCP decreased the biofilm formation. Regarding the molecular epidemiology, in three clusters was a mixture of the isolates from different origins. Therefore, S. aureus MDR with active multidrug efflux systems are circulating between One Health domains and it is necessary to consider strategies to decrease this circulation in order to prevent the dissemination of resistance mediated by MES.

Antimicrobial resistance and virulence profiles of staphylococci isolated from clinical bovine mastitis

Staphylococci, mainly including Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS), are one of the most common pathogens causing bovine mastitis worldwide. In this study, we investigated the antimicrobial resistance and virulence profiles of staphylococci from clinical bovine mastitis in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region of China. Antimicrobial resistance was determined by disc diffusion combined with E-test method. Genes of antimicrobial resistance and virulence factors were determined by PCR. A total of 332 staphylococcal isolates were confirmed from 1,519 mastitic milk samples, including 172 S. aureus and 160 CNS isolates. Fifteen CNS species were identified, with S. chromogenes being the most frequent found (49.4%), followed by S. equorum (13.8%). Noticeably, 2 S. agnetis isolates were found among the CNS isolates. To our knowledge, this is the first report documenting the presence of S. agnetis from bovine mastitis in China. The S. aureus and CNS isolates showed high resistance against penicillin, followed by erythromycin and tetracycline. Multidrug resistance was found in 11.6 and 16.3% of the S. aureus and CNS isolates, respectively. Resistance to penicillin was attributed to the presence of blaZ, erythromycin resistance to ermC (alone or combined with ermB) and tetracycline resistance to tetK (alone or combined with tetM). Notably, one S. equorum isolate and one S. saprophyticus isolate were both methicillin-resistant and mecA positive. Additionally, all S. aureus isolates carried the adhesin genes fnbpA, clfA, clfB, and sdrC, and most of them contained cna and sdrE. Conversely, only a few of the CNS isolates carried clfA, cna, and fnbA. Regarding toxin genes, all S. aureus isolates harbored hlb, and most of them were hlg positive. The lukE-lukD, lukM, sec, sed, sei, sen, seo, tst, seg, seh, and sej were also detected with low frequencies. However, no toxin genes were observed in CNS isolates. This study reveals high species diversity of staphylococci from clinical bovine mastitis in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region of China. The findings for the genetic determinants of antimicrobial resistance and virulence factor provide valuable information for control and prevention of staphylococcal bovine mastitis.

Clinical Characteristics and Microbial Profiles of Paediatric Patients with Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Pneumonia in China

Background: Staphylococcus aureus can cause fatal pneumonia. The evolution of bacteria and the overuse of antibiotics have enhanced the drug resistance of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA). Objectives: This study aimed to recapitulate the microbiological profile and clinical characteristics of paediatric patients with MRSA. Methods: This retrospective study was conducted to investigate 1372 paediatric patients with S. aureus pneumonia from January 2017 to December 2021. Sputum specimens were collected and processed for performing bacterial culture and drug sensitivity tests. Medical records of patients were reviewed for clinical characteristics and laboratory examination results. Results: The MRSA and MSSA pneumonia mainly occurred in infants; however, comparisons of sex, age, and sampling time between patients with MRSA and MSSA pneumonia showed no significant differences (P > 0.05). The results of drug sensitivity in sputum culture revealed that all MRSA and MSSA isolates were susceptible to vancomycin, tigecycline, linezolid, teicoplanin, and ceftaroline. Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus was completely sensitive to rifampicin and oxacillin. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was completely resistant to penicillin and oxacillin, while MSSA was less sensitive to penicillin. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and MSSA both maintained high sensitivity rates to gentamicin, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, levofloxacin, and moxifloxacin, with the exception of clindamycin and erythromycin. According to our results, moreover, the sensitivity of MRSA to gentamicin and sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim was significantly higher than that of MSSA (P < 0.05). The common symptoms of patients with S. aureus pneumonia were fever, cough, and wheezing. patients with MRSA pneumonia had significantly higher counts of white blood cells (WBCs), C-reactive protein (CRP), and procalcitonin (PCT) than patients with MSSA pneumonia (P < 0.05). Conclusions: The results of antimicrobial sensitivity test in sputum culture of MRSA and MSSA isolates can reflect the sensitivity of antibiotics and guide the use of clinical antibiotics. Infectious biomarkers can reflect the severity of infection and guide prognosis.

Serrapeptase impairs biofilm, wall, and phospho-homeostasis of resistant and susceptible Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus biofilms are implicated in hospital infections due to elevated antibiotic and host immune system resistance. Molecular components of cell wall including amyloid proteins, peptidoglycans (PGs), and lipoteichoic acid (LTA) are crucial for biofilm formation and tolerance of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Significance of alkaline phosphatases (ALPs) for biofilm formation has been recorded. Serrapeptase (SPT), a protease of Serratia marcescens, possesses antimicrobial properties similar or superior to those of many antibiotics. In the present study, SPT anti-biofilm activity was demonstrated against S. aureus (ATCC 25923, methicillin-susceptible strain, methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA)) and MRSA (ST80), with IC₅₀ values of 0.67 μg/mL and 7.70 μg/mL, respectively. SPT affected bacterial viability, causing a maximum inhibition of - 46% and - 27%, respectively. Decreased PGs content at [SPT] ≥ 0.5 μg/mL and ≥ 8 μg/mL was verified for MSSA and MRSA, respectively. In MSSA, LTA levels decreased significantly (up to - 40%) at lower SPT doses but increased at the highest dose of 2 μg/mL, a counter to spectacularly increased cellular and secreted LTA levels in MRSA. SPT also reduced amyloids of both strains. Additionally, intracellular ALP activity decreased in both MSSA and MRSA (up to - 85% and - 89%, respectively), while extracellular activity increased up to + 482% in MSSA and + 267% in MRSA. Altered levels of DING proteins, which are involved in phosphate metabolism, in SPT-treated bacteria, were also demonstrated here, implying impaired phosphorus homeostasis. The differential alterations in the studied molecular aspects underline the differences between MSSA and MRSA and offer new insights in the treatment of resistant bacterial biofilms. KEY POINTS: • SPT inhibits biofilm formation in methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible S. aureus. • SPT treatment decreases bacterial viability, ALP activity, and cell wall composition. • SPT-treated bacteria present altered levels of phosphate-related DING proteins.

Genotypic and Phenotypic Characterization of Erythromycin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Bovine Mastitis and Humans in Close Contact

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a major causative agent of mastitis and is resistant to many antibiotics. Thus, there is a need to characterize the genetic determinants of S. aureus erythromycin resistance, such as ermA, ermB and ermC. The current study aimed to determine the phenotypic and genotypic erythromycin resistance profile and relatedness of S. aureus recovered from bovine mastitis and humans in close contact. A total of 14 mastitis-infected buffalo milk samples and 16 samples from their respective milkers were collected from different farms of Lahore, Pakistan. The antibiotic resistance profile was determined through the disk diffusion test. The overall prevalence of S. aureus in mastitis-affected buffaloes was found to be 75%, of which 52.1% were resistant to erythromycin and 42.8% to clindamycin. S. aureus isolates recovered from milker nasal samples showed 56.25% resistance to erythromycin and 44% resistance to clindamycin. Genotypic antibiotic resistance profiles were determined from 14 milk samples through PCR. Overall, eight (52.1%), three (21.4%) and five (35.7%) S. aureus isolates were positive for the ermA, ermB and ermC genes, respectively. Moreover, 16 milker nasal S. aureus isolates were also tested for the presence of ermA, ermB and ermC genes. The ermA, ermB and ermC genes were observed in nine(56.7%), five (31.3%) and seven (43.7%) isolates, respectively. A significant association was shown between phenotypic and genotypic erythromycin resistance. The results indicate both that there are sufficient genetic similarities, and the actual transmission of erythromycin resistance genes between these two hosts of S. aureus.

Exploring the Biofilm Formation Capacity in S. pseudintermedius and Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci Species

The ability of biofilm formation seems to play an important role in the virulence of staphylococci. However, studies reporting biofilm formation of coagulase-negative staphylococci isolated from animals are still very scarce. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the biofilm-forming capacity of CoNS and S. pseudintermedius isolated from several animal species and to investigate the effect of conventional antimicrobials on biofilm reduction. A total of 35 S. pseudintermedius and 192 CoNS were included. Biofilm formation was accessed by the microtiter plate assay and the biofilms were stained by crystal violet. Association between biofilm formation and staphylococci species and antimicrobial resistance was also performed. Biofilm susceptibility testing was performed with tetracycline and amikacin at the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and 10 × MIC. The metabolic activity of the biofilm cells after antimicrobial treatment was accessed by the XTT assay. All isolates formed biofilm, with S. urealyticus producing the most biofilm biomass and S. pseudintermedius producing the least biomass. There was a positive association between biofilm formation and multidrug resistance as well as resistance to individual antimicrobials. Neither tetracycline nor amikacin were able to eradicate the biofilm, not even at the highest concentration used. This study provides new insights into biofilm formation and the effects of antimicrobials on CoNS species.

Biofilm Formation of Staphylococcus aureus from Pets, Livestock, and Wild Animals: Relationship with Clonal Lineages and Antimicrobial Resistance

This study aimed to compare the biofilm formation ability of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from a wide range of animals and study the association between biofilm formation and antimicrobial resistance and genetic lineages. A total of 214 S. aureus strains isolated from pets, livestock, and wild animals were evaluated regarding their ability to form biofilms by the microtiter biofilm assay and their structure via confocal scanning laser microscopy. Statistical analysis was used to find an association between biofilm formation and antimicrobial resistance, multidrug resistance, sequence types (STs), spa and agr-types of the isolates. The antimicrobial susceptibility of 24 h-old biofilms was assessed against minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and 10× MIC of amikacin and tetracycline, and the biomass reduction was measured. The metabolic activity of biofilms after antimicrobial treatment was evaluated by the XTT assay. All isolates were had the ability to form biofilms. Yet, significant differences in biofilm biomass production were detected among animal species. Multidrug resistance had a positive association with biofilm formation as well as methicillin-resistance. Significant differences were also detected among the clonal lineages of the isolates. Both tetracycline and amikacin were able to significantly reduce the biofilm mass. However, none of the antimicrobials were able to eradicate the biofilm at the maximum concentration used. Our results provide important information on the biofilm-forming capacity of animal-adapted S. aureus isolates, which may have potential implications for the development of new biofilm-targeted therapeutics.

Antibacterial activities and action mode of anti-hyperlipidemic lomitapide against Staphylococcus aureus

Background

The increasing emergence of multidrug-resistant Gram-positive bacterial infections necessitates new antibacterial agents with novel mechanisms of action that can be used to treat these infections. Lomitapide has been approved by FDA for years in reducing levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in cases of familial hypercholesterolemia, whereas the antibacterial effect of lomitapide remains elusive. In this study, the inhibitory activities of lomitapide against Gram-positive bacteria were the first time explored. Quantitative proteomics analysis was then applied to investigate the mechanisms of action of lomitapide.

Results

The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of lomitapide against Gram-positive bacteria including both methicillin sensitive and resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, and Streptococcus agalactiae were range 12.5–50 μM. Moreover, lomitapide also inhibited anti-biofilm activity against clinical S. aureus isolates. A total of 106 proteins with > 1.5-fold changes in expression were identified upon 1/2 × MIC lomitapide exposure, including 83 up-regulated proteins and 23 down-regulated proteins. Based on bioinformatics analysis, the expression of cell wall damage response proteins including two-component system VraS/VraR, lipoteichoic acid (LPA) D-alanylnation related proteins D-alanyl carrier protein (dltC) and carrier protein ligase (dltA), methionine sulfoxide reductases (mrsA1 and mrsB) were up-regulated. Moreover, the expression of SaeS and multiple fibrinogen-binding proteins (SAOUHSC_01110, FnBPB, SAOUHSC_02802, SdrC, SdrD) which were involved in the bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation, was inhibited by lomitapide. Furthermore, VraS/VraR deletion mutant (ΔvraSR) showed an enhanced lomitapide sensitivity phenotype.

Conclusion

Lomitapide displayed broad antimicrobial activities against Gram-positive bacteria. The antibacterial effect of lomitapide may be caused by cell wall destruction, while the anti-biofilm activity may be related to the inhibition of surface proteins.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12866-022-02535-9.

Lapatinib Acts against Biofilm Formation and the Hemolytic Activity of Staphylococcus aureus

Biofilm formation and hemolytic activity are closely related to the pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus infections. Herein, we show that lapatinib (12.5 μM) significantly inhibits biofilm formation and hemolytic activity of both methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) isolates. Using quantitative reverse transcription PCR, we found that the RNA levels of transcriptional regulatory genes (RNAIII, agrA, agrC, saeR, and saeS), biofilm-formation-related genes (atl, cidA, clfA, clfB, and icaA), and virulence-related genes (cap5A, hla, hld, hlg, lukDE, lukpvl-S, staphopain B, alpha-3 PSM, beta PSM, and delta PSM) of S. aureus decreased after 6 h treatment with lapatinib. Wild-type S. aureus isolates were continuously cultured in vitro in the presence of increasing concentrations of lapatinib for about 140 days. Subsequently, S. aureus isolates with reduced susceptibility to lapatinib (the inhibitory effect of lapatinib on the biofilm formation of these S. aureus isolates was significantly weakened) were selected. Mutations in the genomes of S. aureus isolates with reduced susceptibility to lapatinib were detected by whole-genome sequencing. We identified four genes with mutations: three genes with known functions (membrane protein, pyrrolidone-carboxylate peptidase, and sensor histidine kinase LytS, respectively) and one gene with unknown function (hypothetical protein). In conclusion, this study indicates that lapatinib significantly inhibits biofilm formation and the hemolytic activity of S. aureus.

Loratadine inhibits Staphylococcus aureus virulence and biofilm formation

There are no anti-virulence and anti-biofilm treatments for Staphylococcus aureus infection. We found that 25 μM loratadine inhibits S. aureus biofilm formation under static or flow-based conditions. Testing of loratadine effects on 255 clinical S. aureus strains with varying biofilm robustness showed inhibition of biofilm formation in medium and strong, but not weak, biofilm-producing strains. At 25 μM, loratadine reduced pigmentation and hemolysis of the bacteria without affecting growth. Loratadine (5 mg/kg) reduced mortality in S. aureus pulmonary infection model mice and acted synergistically with vancomycin to reduce pulmonary bacterial load and levels of inflammatory cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Loratadine analogues (side-chain carbamate moiety changed) inhibited biofilm formation, pigmentation, and hemolysis of S. aureus. Regarding mechanism, loratadine exposure reduced RNA levels of virulence-related S. aureus genes, and loratadine-induced mutations in MgrA reduced loratadine-MgrA binding. Overexpression of mutated mgrA in wild-type S. aureus decreased the biofilm formation inhibition effect of loratadine.

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Loratadine inhibits S. aureus biofilm formation under static or flow conditions

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Loratadine reduced mortality in S. aureus pulmonary infection model mice

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Loratadine synergistically with vancomycin reduced pulmonary bacterial load

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Loratadine-induced mutations in MgrA reduced loratadine-MgrA binding

The antiviral drug efavirenz reduces biofilm formation and hemolysis by Staphylococcus aureus

Introduction. Biofilm formation and hemolysis are closely related to the pathogenicity of Staphylococcus aureus.Hypothesis/Gap Statement. Strategies that reduce the mortality of S. aureus infections may involve novel antimicrobials and/or drugs that decrease S. aureus virulence, such as biofilm formation. The antiviral drug efavirenz is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor, which also has shown antibacterial effect on Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli. Its effect on pathogen virulence has not yet been explored.Aim. This study investigates the antimicrobial and anti-virulence effect of efavirenz on S. aureus.Methodology. Biofilm biomasses were detected by crystal violet staining. Hemolysis activities of S. aureus were determined by rabbit erythrocytes lysis assay. RNA levels of transcriptional regulatory genes, biofilm-related genes, and virulence-related genes of S. aureus were determined by RT-qPCR.Results. Efavirenz showed an inhibitory effect on the growth of S. aureus, Enterococcus faecalis and Streptococcus agalactiae at 50 µM. Efavirenz significantly inhibited biofilm formation of both methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) at 25 µM, but did not affect the growth of planktonic S. aureus cells. Moreover, hemolysis by S. aureus was inhibited by efavirenz at 25 µM. The expression levels of RNA transcriptional regulatory genes (agrA, agrC, sigB, saeR and saeS), biofilm-related genes (cidA, clfA, clfB, fnbA, fnbB), and virulence-related genes (hla, hld, staphopain B, alpha-3 PSM, beta PSM, delta PSM) of S. aureus decreased significantly at 25 µM efavirenz.Conclusion. Efavirenz inhibits S. aureus biofilm formation and virulence in vitro.

Antibiotic susceptibility of human-associated Staphylococcus aureus and its relation to agr typing, virulence genes, and biofilm formation

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Carriage of virulence factors confers some evolutionary benefit to bacteria, which favors the resistant strains. We aimed to analyze whether antibiotic susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus strains is affected by agr typing, biofilm formation ability, and virulence profiles.

METHODS

A total of 123 S. aureus clinical isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing by disk diffusion method, biofilm formation by microtiter plate method, as well as polymerase chain reaction screening to identify virulence genes and the accessory gene regulator (agr) types I-IV. A P value < 0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

The most prevalent virulence gene was staphyloxanthin crtN, followed by hemolysin genes, capsular cap8H, toxic shock toxin tst, and enterotoxin sea, respectively. Resistant isolates were more commonly found in the agr-negative group than in the agr-positive group. Isolates of agr type III were more virulent than agr I isolates. Strong biofilm producers showed more antibiotic susceptibility and carried more virulence genes than non-strong biofilm producers. Associations were found between the presence of virulence genes and susceptibility to antibiotics. Carriage of the virulence genes and agr was higher in the inpatients; while, resistance and strong biofilms were more prevalent in the outpatients.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicated the presence of several virulence factors, biofilm production capacity, agr types and resistance to antibiotics in clinical S. aureus isolates. Considering the importance of S. aureus for human medicine, an understanding of virulence and resistance relationships would help to reduce the impact of S. aureus infections.

Diclazuril Inhibits Biofilm Formation and Hemolysis of Staphylococcus aureus

Biofilm formation and hemolysis induced by Staphylococcus aureus are closely related to pathogenicity. However, no drugs exist to inhibit biofilm formation or hemolysis induced by S. aureus in clinical practice. This study found diclazuril had antibacterial action against S. aureus with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) at 50 μM for both methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Diclazuril (at 1/4× or 1/8× MICs) significantly inhibited biofilm formation of S. aureus under static or flow-based conditions and also inhibited hemolysis induced by S. aureus. The RNA levels of transcriptional regulatory genes (agrA, agrC, luxS, sarA, sigB, saeR, saeS), biofilm formation-related genes (aur, bap, ccpA, cidA, clfA, clfB, fnbA, fnbB, icaA, icaB, sasG), and virulence-related genes (hla, hlb, hld, hlg, lukDE, lukpvl-S, spa, sbi, alpha-3 PSM, beta PSM, coa) of S. aureus were decreased when treated by diclazuril (at 1/4× MIC) for 4 h. The diclazuril nonsensitive clones of S. aureus were selected in vitro by induction of wildtype strains for about 90 days under the pressure of diclazuril. Mutations in the possible target genes of diclazuril against S. aureus were detected by whole-genome sequencing. This study indicated that there were three amino acid mutations in the diclazuril nonsensitive clone of S. aureus, two of which were located in genes with known function (SMC-Scp complex subunit ScpB and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase 1, respectively) and one in a gene with unknown function (hypothetical protein). Diclazuril showed a strong inhibition effect on planktonic cells and biofilm formation of S. aureus with the overexpression of the scpB gene.

Chromone Derivatives CM3a Potently Eradicate Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms by Inhibiting Cell Adherence

Introduction

The ability of Staphylococcus aureus to form biofilms is associated with high mortality and treatment costs. Established biofilms cannot be eradicated by many conventional antibiotics due to the development of antibiotic tolerance by S. aureus. Here we report the synthesis and biological characterization of novel small-molecule compounds with antibiofilm activity. Chromone 5-maleimide substitution compounds (CM3a) showed favorable antibacterial activity against S. aureus.

Methods

CM3A with antibacterial activity was synthesized and screened. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of CM3a were determined by the broth microdilution method. Biofilm eradication assay and colony count methods were used to investigate the effect of CM3a on S. aureus biofilm disruption and killing. Changes in biofilm architecture when subjected to CM3a, were visualized using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). CCK-8 assay and survival rate of Galleria mellonella larvae were used to test the toxicity of CM3a.

Results

The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of CM3a against S. aureus was about 26.4 μM. Biofilm staining and laser scanning confocal microscopy analysis showed that CM3a eradicated S. aureus biofilms by reducing the viability of the constituent bacterial cells. On the other hand, CM3a showed negligible toxicity against mouse alveolar epithelial cells and Galleria mellonella larvae.

Conclusion

Chromone derivatives CM3a has therapeutic potential as a safe and effective compound for the treatment of S. aureus infection.

The Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Activity of Telithromycin Against Enterococcus spp. Isolated From Patients in China

Telithromycin has been reported to possess robust in vitro antibacterial activity against many species of gram-positive bacteria, and telithromycin is also effective against Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. However, the in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility of telithromycin against clinical enterococci isolates in China is rarely reported and the impacts of telithromycin on the biofilm formation and eradication of enterococci remain elusive. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the inhibitory effects of telithromycin on planktonic cells and biofilms of Enterococcus strains. A total of 280 Enterococcus faecalis and 122 Enterococcus faecium isolates were collected from individual inpatients in China. The 50% minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC50) values of telithromycin against the E. faecalis and E. faecium strains carrying erythromycin-resistant methylase (erm) genes such as the ermA, ermB, or ermC, were 2 and 4 μg/mL, respectively. In addition, these isolates were typed using multilocus sequence typing (MLST) based on housekeeping genes. The predominant sequence types (STs) of E. faecalis were ST16, ST30, and ST179, and the main STs of E. faecium isolates were ST18, ST78, and ST80. Among these major STs, 87.1% (135/158) of E. faecalis and 80.4% (41/51) of E. faecium carried erm genes. Furthermore, at the subinhibitory concentrations (1/4 and 1/8 × MIC) of telithromycin, the biofilm formation of 16 E. faecalis isolates were inhibited by approximately 35%. Moreover, treatment with 8 × MIC of telithromycin or ampicillin led to an almost 40% reduction in the established biofilms of E. faecalis isolates, whereas vancomycin or linezolid with 8 × MIC had minimal effects. The combination of telithromycin and ampicillin resulted in an almost 70% reduction in the established biofilms of E. faecalis. In conclusion, these results revealed that telithromycin significantly decreased the planktonic cells of both E. faecalis and E. faecium. In addition, the data further demonstrated that telithromycin has the robust ability to inhibit E. faecalis biofilms and the combination of telithromycin and ampicillin improved antibiofilm activity. These in vitro antibacterial and antibiofilm activities suggest that telithromycin could be a potential candidate for the treatment of enterococcal infections.

Research Progress of Alzheimer's Disease Therapeutic Drugs: Based on Renin-Angiotensin System Axis

It is widely recognized that Alzheimer's disease (AD) has a complicate link to renin-angiotensin system (RAS). It is known that cerebrovascular disease has some connections with AD, but most of the studies are still conducted in parallel or independently. Although previous research came up with large number of hypotheses about the pathogenesis of AD, it does not include the mechanism of RAS-related regulation of AD. It has been found that many components of RAS have been changed in AD. For example, the multifunctional and high-efficiency vasoconstrictor Ang II and Ang III with similar effects are changed under the action of other RAS signal peptides; these signal peptides are believed to help improve nerve injury and cognitive function. These changes may lead to neuropathological changes of AD, and progressive defects of cognitive function, which are association with some hypotheses of AD. The role of RAS in AD gradually attracts our attention, and RAS deserved to be considered carefully in the pathogenesis of AD. This review discusses the mechanisms of RAS participating in the three current hypotheses of AD: neuroinflammation, oxidative stress and amyloid-β protein (Aβ) hypothesis, as well as the drugs that regulate RAS systems already in clinical or in clinical trials. It further demonstrates the importance of RAS in the pathogenesis of AD, not only because of its multiple aspects of participation, which may be accidental, but also because of the availability of RAS drugs, which can be reused as therapies of AD.

Global Evolution of Pathogenic Bacteria With Extensive Use of Fluoroquinolone Agents

It is well-established that the spread of many multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria is predominantly clonal. Interestingly the international clones/sequence types (STs) of most pathogens emerged and disseminated during the last three decades. Strong experimental evidence from multiple laboratories indicate that diverse fitness cost associated with high-level resistance to fluoroquinolones contributed to the selection and promotion of the international clones/STs of hospital-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (HA-MRSA), extended-spectrum β-lactamase-(ESBL)-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae, ESBL-producing Escherichia coli and Clostridioides difficile. The overwhelming part of the literature investigating the epidemiology of the pathogens as a function of fluoroquinolone use remain in concordence with these findings. Moreover, recent in vitro data clearly show the potential of fluoroquinolone exposure to shape the clonal evolution of Salmonella Enteritidis. The success of the international clones/STs in all these species was linked to the strains' unique ability to evolve multiple energetically beneficial gyrase and topoisomerase IV mutations conferring high-level resistance to fluorquinolones and concomittantly permitting the acquisition of an extra resistance gene load without evoking appreciable fitness cost. Furthermore, by analyzing the clonality of multiple species, the review highlights, that in environments under high antibiotic exposure virulence factors play only a subsidiary role in the clonal dynamics of bacteria relative to multidrug-resistance coupled with favorable fitness (greater speed of replication). Though other groups of antibiotics should also be involved in selecting clones of bacterial pathogens the role of fluoroquinolones due to their peculiar fitness effect remains unique. It is suggested that probably no bacteria remain immune to the influence of fluoroquinolones in shaping their evolutionary dynamics. Consequently a more judicious use of fluoroquinolones, attuned to the proportion of international clone/ST isolates among local pathogens, would not only decrease resistance rates against this group of antibiotics but should also ameliorate the overall antibiotic resistance landscape.

In vitro activities of telithromycin against Staphylococcus aureus biofilms compared with azithromycin, clindamycin, vancomycin and daptomycin

Introduction. Staphylococcus aureus biofilms are difficult to treat and the effect of telithromycin treatment is still unclear.Aim. This study aimed to explore the effect of telithromycin against Staphylococcus aureus biofilms compared with azithromycin, clindamycin, vancomycin and daptomycin.Methodology. Eight methicillin-susceptible and eight methicillin-resistant S. aureus isolates (MSSA and MRSA, respectively) were used for this study. Biofilm biomasses were detected by crystal violet staining and the adherent cells in the established biofilms were quantified by determination of colony-forming units (c.f.u.). The RNA levels of biofilm formation-related genes were determined by RT-qPCR.Results. Telithromycin [8× minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)] eradicated more established biofilms than azithromycin or clindamycin in the four MSSA isolates, and eliminated the established biofilms of six MRSA isolates more effectively than vancomycin or daptomycin. Telithromycin (8× MIC) killed more adherent cells in the established biofilms than azithromycin or clindamycin in the six MSSA isolates, and killed more adherent cells than vancomycin in all eight MRSA isolates. Daptomycin also showed an excellent effect on the adherent cells of MRSA isolates, with similarresults to telithromycin. The effect of a subinhibitory concentration of telithromycin (1/4× MIC) was significantly superior to that of azithromycin or clindamycin, inhibiting the biofilm formation of six MSSA isolates and seven MRSA isolates more effectively than vancomycin or daptomycin. The RNA levels of agrA, agrC, clfA, icaA and sigB decreased when treated with telithromycin (1/4× MIC).Conclusions. Telithromycin is more effective than azithromycin, clindamycin, vancomycin, or daptomycin against S. aureus biofilms.