Venom as therapeutic weapon to combat dreadful diseases of 21st century: A systematic review on cancer, TB, and HIV/AIDS

The application of snake venom in anticancer drug discovery: an overview of the latest developments

INTRODUCTION

Snake venom is a rich source of toxins with great potential for therapeutic applications. In addition to its efficacy in treating hypertension, acute coronary syndrome, and other heart conditions, research has shown that this potent enzymatic cocktail is capable of selectively targeting and destroying cancer cells in many cases while sparing healthy cells.

AREAS COVERED

The authors begin by acknowledging the emerging trends in snake-derived targeted therapies in battling cancer. An extensive literature review examining the effects of various snake venom toxins on cancer cell lines, highlighting the specific cancer hallmarks each toxin targets is presented. Furthermore, the authors emphasize the emerging potential of artificial intelligence in accelerating snake venom-based drug discovery for cancer treatment, showcasing several innovative software applications in this field.

EXPERT OPINION

Research on snake venom toxins indicates promising potential for cancer treatment as many of the discussed toxins can specifically target cancer cells. Nevertheless, variations in the composition of venoms, ethical issues, and delivery barriers limit their development into effective therapies. Thus, advances in biotechnology, molecular engineering, in silico methods are crucial for the refinement of venom-derived compounds, improving their specificity, and overcoming these challenges, ultimately enhancing their therapeutic potential in cancer therapy.

Optimizing broiler performance, carcass traits, and health: evaluating thyme and/or garlic powders as natural growth promoters in antibiotic-free diets

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of thyme powder (TP), garlic powder (GP), and their combination as natural alternatives to antibiotics on broiler growth performance, blood indices, and carcass characteristics. A completely randomized design was used, with four experimental groups consisting of 264 one-day-old Ross 308 broiler chicks (45.27±0.5 g). Each group received different levels of TP and GP in the diet as follows: a control group (basal diet with no additives), 2 g of GP/kg, 2 g of TP/kg, and a mixture treatment (1 g of GP/kg + 1 g of TP/kg). Each treatment included six replicates, with eleven unsexed chicks per replicate. The results showed that supplementation with TP, GP, and their combination significantly improved feed intake (FI), feed conversion ratio (FCR), and overall growth performance compared to the untreated group (UG). The different additives also significantly (P≤0.05) enhanced carcass characteristics, particularly carcass yield and heart weight, both in absolute and relative terms. Furthermore, the treatments significantly (P≤0.05) affected blood indices, leading to notable improvements in immune and antioxidant parameters, including increased levels of immunoglobulin Y (IgY), immunoglobulin M (IgM), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), as well as decreased levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), a marker of oxidative stress. These changes suggest that the supplemented groups had enhanced immunity and a better oxidative balance, contributing to improved overall health. Notably, the combined treatment of TP and GP (1% each) exhibited a synergistic effect, yielding benefits comparable to or even surpassing those of the individual TP or GP treatments. These findings support the potential of combining these natural additives to achieve a balanced improvement in growth, feed efficiency, and health status. In conclusion, supplementation with thyme powder, garlic powder, or a combination of both at appropriate levels (2% GP, 2% TP, or 1% each) can serve as an effective alternative to antibiotics, improving broiler growth performance, carcass quality, and health by enhancing immune responses and antioxidant status.

A review on inflammation modulating venom proteins/peptide therapeutics and their delivery strategies: A review

Inflammation is an initial biological reaction that occurs in response to infection caused by foreign pathogens or injury. This process involves a tightly controlled series of signaling events at the molecular and cellular levels, with the ultimate goal of restoring tissue balance and protecting against invading pathogens. Malfunction in the process of inflammation can result in a diverse array of diseases, such as cardiovascular, neurological, and autoimmune disorders. Therefore, the management of inflammation is of utmost importance in modern medicine. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and corticosteroids have long been the mainstays of pharmacological treatment for inflammation, effectively alleviating symptoms in many patients. Recently, toxins and venom, formerly seen as mostly harmful to the human body, have been recognized as possible medicinal substances for treating inflammation. Organisms that are venomous, such as spiders, scorpions, snakes, and certain marine species, have developed a wide range of powerful toxins that can effectively disable or discourage predators. Remarkably, the majority of these poisons and venoms consist of proteins and peptides, which are acknowledged as significant bioactive compounds with medicinal potential. The goal of this review is to investigate the medicinal potential of peptides derived from venoms and their complex mechanism of action in suppressing inflammation. This review also discusses various challenges and future prospects for effective venom delivery.

Unlocking nature's arsenal: Nanotechnology for targeted delivery of venom toxins in cancer therapy

AIM

The aim of the present review is to shed light on the nanotechnological approaches adopted to overcome the shortcomings associated with the delivery of venom peptides which possess inherent anti-cancer properties.

BACKGROUND

Venom peptides although have been reported to demonstrate anti-cancer effects, they suffer from several disadvantages such as in vivo instability, off-target adverse effects, limited drug loading and low bioavailability. This review presents a comprehensive compilation of different classes of nanocarriers while underscoring their advantages, disadvantages and potential to carry such peptide molecules for in vivo delivery. It also discusses various nanotechnological aspects such as methods of fabrication, analytical tools to assess these nanoparticulate formulations, modulation of nanocarrier polymer properties to enhance loading capacity, stability and improve their suitability to carry toxic peptide drugs.

CONCLUSION

Nanotechnological approaches bear great potential in delivering venom peptide-based molecules as anticancer agents by enhancing their bioavailability, stability, efficacy as well as offering a spatiotemporal delivery approach. However, the challenges associated with toxicity and biocompatibility of nanocarriers must be duly addressed.

PERSPECTIVES

The everlasting quest for new breakthroughs for safer delivery of venom peptides in human subjects is fuelled by unmet clinical needs in the current landscape of chemotherapy. In addition, exhaustive efforts are required in obtaining and purifying the venom peptides followed by designing and optimizing scale up technologies.

Pharmacological insights and role of bufalin (bufadienolides) in inflammation modulation: a narrative review

Bufadienolides, specifically bufalin, have garnered attention for their potential therapeutic application in modulating inflammatory pathways. Bufalin is derived from toad venom and exhibits promising anti-inflammatory properties. Its anti-inflammatory effects have been demonstrated by influencing crucial signaling pathways like NF-B, MAPK, and JAK-STAT, resulting in the inhibition of pro-inflammatory substances like cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules. Bufalin blocks inflammasome activation and reduces oxidative stress, hence increasing its anti-inflammatory properties. Bufalin has shown effectiveness in reducing inflammation-related diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular problems, and autoimmune ailments in preclinical investigations. Furthermore, producing new approaches of medication delivery and combining therapies with bufalin shows potential for improving its effectiveness and reducing adverse effects. This review explores the pharmacological effects and mechanistic approaches of bufalin as an anti-inflammatory agent, which further highlights its potential for therapy and offers the basis for further study on its therapeutic application in inflammation-related disorders.

Venom of Viperidae: A Perspective of its Antibacterial and Antitumor Potential

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The emergence of multi-drug resistant bacteria and limitations on cancer treatment represent two important challenges in modern medicine. Biological compounds have been explored with a particular focus on venoms. Although they can be lethal or cause considerable damage to humans, venom is also a source rich in components with high therapeutic potential.

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Viperidae family is one of the most emblematic venomous snake families and several studies highlighted the antibacterial and antitumor potential of viper toxins. According to the literature, these activities are mainly associated to five protein families - svLAAO, Disintegrins, PLA2, SVMPs and C-type lectins- that act through different mechanisms leading to the inhibition of the growth of bacteria, as well as, cytotoxic effects and inhibition of metastasis process. In this review, we provide an overview of the venom toxins produced by species belonging to the Viperidae family, exploring their roles during the envenoming and their pharmacological properties, in order to demonstrate its antibacterial and antitumor potential.

South American snake venoms with abundant neurotoxic components. Composition and toxicological properties. A literature review

In South America there are three snake genera with predominantly neurotoxic venoms: Crotalus, Micrurus and Hydrophis, which include nine species/subspecies, 97 species and a single marine species, respectively. Although accidents with neurotoxic venoms are less frequent than those with anticoagulant, cytotoxic or necrotic venoms (e.g. from Bothrops), they are of major public health importance. Venoms from genus Crotalus have been extensively studied, while data on the venoms from the other two genera are very limited, especially for Hydrophis. The venoms of North and South American Crotalus species show biochemical and physiopathological differences. The former species cause bothrops-like envenomation symptoms, while the latter mainly have neurotoxic and myotoxic effects, leading to respiratory paralysis and, occasionally, renal failure by myoglobinuria and death, often with no local lesions. Micrurus and Hydrophis also cause neurotoxic envenomations. Many studies have isolated, identified and characterized new enzymes and toxins, thus expanding the knowledge of snake venom composition. The present review summarizes the currently available information on neurotoxic venoms from South American snakes, with a focus on protein composition and toxicological properties. It also includes some comments concerning potential medical applications of elapid and crotalic toxins.

Antitumor potential of Hedyotis diffusa Willd: A systematic review of bioactive constituents and underlying molecular mechanisms

Cancer is a major cause of death in the world. Chemotherapy can extend the life of cancer patients to some extent, but the quality of life is reduced. Therefore, the quest for more efficient and less toxic medication strategies is still at the forefront of current research. Hedyotis diffusa Willd (HDW), a Chinese herb medicine, has received great attention in the past two decades and has been well documented in clinics for antitumor activity in a variety of human cancers. This review discussed a total of 58 different kinds of active antitumor components isolated from HDW, including iridoids, flavonoids, flavonol glycosides, anthraquinones, phenolic acids, and their derivatives, sterols, and volatile oils. Their antitumor activities include inhibition of tumor cell proliferation, induction of tumor cell apoptosis and tumor angiogenesis, regulation of the host immune response, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant, and protective autophagy. Besides, we provide up-to-date and systematic evidence for HDW antitumor activities and the possible underlying molecular mechanisms and reference for further development of novel drugs and dosage formulation in control of human cancers.

Zoopharmacology: A Way to Discover New Cancer Treatments

Zoopharmacognosy is the multidisciplinary approach of the self-medication behavior of many kinds of animals. Recent studies showed the presence of antitumoral secondary metabolites in some of the plants employed by animals and their use for the same therapeutic purposes in humans. Other related and sometimes confused term is Zootherapy, which consists on the employment of animal parts and/or their by-products such as toxins, venoms, etc., to treat different human ailments. Therefore, the aim of this work is to provide a brief insight for the use of Zoopharmacology (comprising Zoopharmacognosy and Zootherapy) as new paths to discover drugs studying animal behavior and/or using compounds derived from animals. This work is focused on the approaches related to cancer, in order to propose a new promising line of research to overcome multidrug resistance (MDR). This novel subject will encourage the use of new alternative prospective ways to find new medicines.

Scorpion venoms and associated toxins as anticancer agents: update on their application and mechanism of action

Cancer remains one of the deadliest non-infectious diseases of the 21^st century, causing millions of mortalities per year worldwide. Analyses of conventional treatments, such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy, have shown not only a lower therapeutic efficiency rate but also plethora of side-effects. Considering the desperate need to identify promising anticancer agents, researchers are in quest to design and develop new tumoricidal drugs from natural sources. Over the past few years, scorpion venoms have shown exemplary roles as pivotal anticancer agents. Scorpion venoms associated metabolites, particularly toxins demonstrated in vitro anticancer attributes against diversified cell lines by inhibiting the growth and progression of the cell cycle, inhibiting metastasis by blocking ion channels such as K⁺ and Cl^- , and/or inducing apoptosis by intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. This review sheds light not only on in vitro anticancer properties of distinct scorpion venoms and their toxins, but also on their mechanism of action for designing and developing new therapeutic drugs in future.

Antiretroviral activity of Pterois volitans (red lionfish) venom in the early development of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome antiretroviral alternative source

Aim

This study aimed to investigate the antiviral activity of Pterois volitans phospholipase A2 (PV-PLA2) from Indonesia to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

Materials and Methods

Fresh venomous fin parts of wild PV specimens were collected from Java Sea waters. Then, it washed using phosphate buffer pH 7.0 and immersed in phosphate buffer pH 7.0 0.01 m containing CaCl₂ 0.001 m for 24 h. The immersed fin then allowed for extraction process by sonicating for 2×8 min with 80% pulse and 20 kHz output with temperature controlling to avoid denaturation. The crude venom (CV) extracted from the fin is allowed for purification by 80% ethanol (ET) precipitation and ammonium sulfate fractionation method. The purified PV-PLA2 then analyzed using Lowry's method, Marinette's method, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and 3-(4, 5-dimethyl thiazol-2yl)-2, 5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay. After determining the purest and safest sample of six samples analyzed, the chosen sample then tested into simian retrovirus-2 (SRV2)-A549 culture (48×10⁴ cells/mL at 1-4 ppm), and compared to the CV sample (1-4 ppm) and lamivudine (100 ppm). The culture then is analyzed using a quantitative real time-polymerase chain reaction to find out the copy number of SRV-2 virus in each culture.

Results

The protein's activity, concentration, and purity analysis revealed that the PV-PLA2 purified using ammonium sulfate fractionation has the highest activity (1.81 times higher than the CV at 80% fractionation) and has higher purity than the sample from ET fractionation. The testing of the sample purified using ammonium sulfate fractionation at 80% saturation level shown that it has a 97.78% inhibition level toward SRV2-A549 culture at 4 ppm. However, in comparison to lamivudine which has 99.55% inhibition level at 100 ppm, it needs much lower concentration to achieve the same result.

Conclusion

The significant inhibition of SRV2-A549 culture shown that the PV-PLA2 extracted from PV venom has the potential to become anti-HIV substances. It would be worthwhile to further evaluate the antiretroviral activity of PV-PLA2 in the in vivo studies.