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Khalimonchuk O, Becker DF. Molecular Determinants of Mitochondrial Shape and Function and Their Role in Glaucoma. Antioxid Redox Signal 2023; 38:896-919. [PMID: 36301938 PMCID: PMC10171965 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2022.0124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Significance: Cells depend on well-functioning mitochondria for essential processes such as energy production, redox signaling, coordination of metabolic pathways, and cofactor biosynthesis. Mitochondrial dysfunction, metabolic decline, and protein stress have been implicated in the etiology of multiple late-onset diseases, including various ataxias, diabetes, sarcopenia, neuromuscular disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases such as parkinsonism, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and glaucoma. Recent Advances: New evidence supports that increased energy metabolism protects neuron function during aging. Key energy metabolic enzymes, however, are susceptible to oxidative damage making it imperative that the mitochondrial proteome is protected. More than 40 different enzymes have been identified as important factors for guarding mitochondrial health and maintaining a dynamic pool of mitochondria. Critical Issues: Understanding shared mechanisms of age-related disorders of neurodegenerative diseases such as glaucoma, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease is important for developing new therapies. Functional mitochondrial shape and dynamics rely on complex interactions between mitochondrial proteases and membrane proteins. Identifying the sequence of molecular events that lead to mitochondrial dysfunction and metabolic stress is a major challenge. Future Directions: A critical need exists for new strategies that reduce mitochondrial protein stress and promote mitochondrial dynamics in age-related neurological disorders. Discovering how mitochondria-associated degradation is related to proteostatic mechanisms in mitochondrial compartments may reveal new opportunities for therapeutic interventions. Also, little is known about how protein and membrane contacts in the inner and outer mitochondrial membrane are regulated, even though they are pivotal for mitochondrial architecture. Future work will need to delineate the molecular details of these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oleh Khalimonchuk
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Nebraska Redox Biology Center, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
- Fred & Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - Donald F. Becker
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Nebraska Redox Biology Center, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
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2
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Hu Z, Liao J, Zhang K, Huang K, Li Q, Lei C, Han Q, Zhang H, Guo J, Hu L, Pan J, Li Y, Tang Z. Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Copper on Mitochondria-Mediated Apoptosis in Pig Liver. Biol Trace Elem Res 2023; 201:1726-1739. [PMID: 35666388 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-022-03303-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Copper (Cu) is listed as one of the main heavy metal pollutants, which poses potential health risks to humans. Excessive intake of Cu has shown toxic effects on the organs of many animals, and the liver is one of the most important organs to metabolize it. In this study, pigs, the mammal with similar metabolic characteristics to humans, were selected to assess the effects of long-term exposure to Cu on mitochondria-mediated apoptosis, which are of great significance for studying the toxicity of Cu to humans. Pigs were fed a diet with different contents of Cu (10, 125, and 250 mg/kg) for 80 days. Samples of blood and liver tissue were collected on days 40 and 80. Experimental results demonstrated that the accumulation of Cu in the liver was increased in a dose-dependent and time-dependent manner. Meanwhile, the curve of pig's body weight showed that a 125 mg/kg Cu diet promoted the growth of pigs during the first 40 days and then inhibited it from 40 to 80 days, while the 250 mg/kg Cu diet inhibited the growth of pigs during 80 days of feeding. Additionally, the genes and protein expression levels of Caspase-3, p53, Bax, Bak1, Bid, Bad, CytC, and Drp1 in the treatment group were higher than that in the control group, while Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, Opa1, Mfn1, and Mfn2 were decreased. In conclusion, these results indicated that long-term excessive intake of Cu could inhibit the growth of pigs and induced mitochondria-mediated apoptosis by breaking the mitochondrial dynamic balance. Synopsis: Long-term exposure to high doses of Cu could lead to mitochondrial dysfunction by breaking the mitochondrial dynamic balance, which ultimately induced mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in the liver of pigs. This might be closely related to the growth inhibition and liver damage in pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuoying Hu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianzhao Liao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Kai Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Kunxuan Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Quanwei Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Chaiqin Lei
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Qingyue Han
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianying Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Lianmei Hu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiaqiang Pan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhaoxin Tang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China.
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3
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Zelentsova AS, Deykin AV, Soldatov VO, Ulezko AA, Borisova AY, Belyaeva VS, Skorkina MY, Angelova PR. P2X7 Receptor and Purinergic Signaling: Orchestrating Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Neurodegenerative Diseases. eNeuro 2022; 9:ENEURO.0092-22.2022. [PMID: 36376084 PMCID: PMC9665882 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0092-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction is one of the basic hallmarks of cellular pathology in neurodegenerative diseases. Since the metabolic activity of neurons is highly dependent on energy supply, nerve cells are especially vulnerable to impaired mitochondrial function. Besides providing oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondria are also involved in controlling levels of second messengers such as Ca2+ ions and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Interestingly, the critical role of mitochondria as producers of ROS is closely related to P2XR purinergic receptors, the activity of which is modulated by free radicals. Here, we review the relationships between the purinergic signaling system and affected mitochondrial function. Purinergic signaling regulates numerous vital biological processes in the CNS. The two main purines, ATP and adenosine, act as excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, respectively. Current evidence suggests that purinergic signaling best explains how neuronal activity is related to neuronal electrical activity and energy homeostasis, especially in the development of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. In this review, we focus on the mechanisms underlying the involvement of the P2RX7 purinoreceptor in triggering mitochondrial dysfunction during the development of neurodegenerative disorders. We also summarize various avenues by which the purine signaling pathway may trigger metabolic dysfunction contributing to neuronal death and the inflammatory activation of glial cells. Finally, we discuss the potential role of the purinergic system in the search for new therapeutic approaches to treat neurodegenerative diseases.
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4
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Alavi MV. OMA1 High-Throughput Screen Reveals Protease Activation by Kinase Inhibitors. ACS Chem Biol 2021; 16:2202-2211. [PMID: 34672515 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.1c00350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial proteases are interesting but challenging drug targets for multifactorial diseases, such as neurodegeneration and cancer. The mitochondrial inner membrane protease OMA1 is a bona fide drug target for heart failure supported by data from human linkage analysis and animal disease models, but presumably relevant for more indications. OMA1 acts at the intersection of energy metabolism and stress signaling. The protease cleaves the structural protein OPA1, which organizes the cristae, as well as the signaling peptide DELE1, which can stimulate the integrated stress response. OMA1 shows little activity under physiological conditions but hydrolyzes OPA1 in mitochondria destined for mitophagy and during apoptosis. Little is known about OMA1, its structure has not been solved, let alone its context-dependent regulation. Autocatalytic processing and the lack of OMA1 inhibitors are thereby creating the biggest roadblocks. This study introduces a scalable, cellular OMA1 protease assay suitable for high-throughput drug screening. The assay utilizes an engineered luciferase targeted to the inner membrane as artificial OMA1 substrate, whereby the reporter signal inversely correlates to OMA1 activity. Testing different screening protocols and sampling different compound collections validated the reporter and demonstrated that both OMA1 activators as well as OMA1 inhibitors can be identified with the assay. Ten kinase-targeted cancer drugs triggered OMA1 in the assays, which suggests─considering cardiotoxicity as a rather common side-effect of this class of drugs─cross-reactivity with the OMA1 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel V. Alavi
- 712 North Inc., QB3 Incubator at UC Berkeley, 130 Stanley Hall, #3220, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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Liao J, Yang F, Bai Y, Yu W, Qiao N, Han Q, Zhang H, Guo J, Hu L, Li Y, Pan J, Tang Z. Metabolomics analysis reveals the effects of copper on mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in kidney of broiler chicken (Gallus gallus). J Inorg Biochem 2021; 224:111581. [PMID: 34419760 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2021.111581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Copper (Cu) is one of the ubiquitous environmental pollutants which have raised wide concerns about the potential toxic effects and public health threat. For deeply investigating the nephrotoxicity induced by Cu, the effects of Cu on mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in kidney were first to analyze by combining metabolomics and molecular biology techniques. In this study, broiler chicks were fed with different contents of Cu (11, 110, 220, and 330 mg/kg Cu) for 49 d. The results of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining and transmission electron microscope showed that Cu could induce apoptosis in kidney, characterized by the increasing of TUNEL-positive cells and mitochondrial vacuolation. Additionally, a total of 62 differential metabolites were detected by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), and mainly enriched in the metabolic pathways including riboflavin metabolism, glutathione metabolism, sphingolipid metabolism, and glycerophospholipid metabolism, which were closely to mitochondrial metabolism. Meanwhile, the decreased mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), increased mitochondrial membrane permeability and the change of mRNA and protein expression levels associated with mitochondria-mediated apoptosis and mitochondrial dynamics confirmed that Cu could induce mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. Therefore, our results demonstrated that Cu induced mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in kidney. Moreover, this study highlighted the metabolic characteristics of Cu to kidney, which suggested that mitochondrial metabolism could be considered as an important factor influencing toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianzhao Liao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Fan Yang
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Animal Health, Institute of Animal Population Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, PR China
| | - Yuman Bai
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Wenlan Yu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Na Qiao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Qingyue Han
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Hui Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Jianying Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Lianmei Hu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Ying Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Jiaqiang Pan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Zhaoxin Tang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, PR China.
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Hu Y, Xu Y, Chen W, Qiu Z. Stomatin-Like Protein-2: A Potential Target to Treat Mitochondrial Cardiomyopathy. Heart Lung Circ 2021; 30:1449-1455. [PMID: 34088631 DOI: 10.1016/j.hlc.2021.05.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Stomatin-like protein-2 (SLP-2) is a mitochondrial-associated protein that is abundant in cardiomyocytes. Many reports have shown that SLP-2 plays an important role in mitochondria. The treatment of mitochondrial cardiomyopathy (MCM) needs further improvement, so the relationship between SLP-2 and MCM is worth exploring. This study reviewed some protective mechanisms of SLP-2 on mitochondria. Published studies have shown that SLP-2 protects mitochondria by stabilising the function of optic atrophy 1 (OPA1), promoting mitofusin (Mfn) 2 expression, interacting with prohibitins and cardiolipin, forming SLP-2-PARL-YME1L (SPY) complex, and stabilising respiratory chain complexes, suggesting that SLP-2 is a new potential target for the treatment of MCM. However, the specific mechanism of SLP-2 needs to be confirmed by further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuntao Hu
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yueyue Xu
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wen Chen
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Zhibing Qiu
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Jiangsu, China.
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7
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Alavi MV. OMA1-An integral membrane protease? BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2021; 1869:140558. [PMID: 33130089 PMCID: PMC7770061 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2020.140558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Revised: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
OMA1 is a mitochondrial protease. Among its substrates are DELE1, a signaling peptide, which can elicit the integrated stress response, as well as the membrane-shaping dynamin-related GTPase OPA1, which can drive mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization. OMA1 is dormant under physiological conditions but rapidly activated upon mitochondrial stress, such as loss of membrane potential or excessive reactive oxygen species. Accordingly, OMA1 was found to be activated in a number of disease conditions, including cancer and neurodegeneration. OMA1 has a predicted transmembrane domain and is believed to be tethered to the mitochondrial inner membrane. Yet, its structure has not been resolved and its context-dependent regulation remains obscure. Here, I review the literature with focus on OMA1's biochemistry. I provide a good homology model of OMA1's active site with a root-mean-square deviation of 0.9 Å and a DALI Z-score of 19.8. And I build a case for OMA1 actually being an integral membrane protease based on OMA1's role in the generation of small signaling peptides, its functional overlap with PARL, and OMA1's homology with ZMPSTE24. The refined understanding of this important enzyme can help with the design of tool compounds and development of chemical probes in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel V Alavi
- 712 North Inc., QB3 Incubator at UC Berkeley, 130 Stanley Hall, #3220, Berkeley CA-94720, USA.
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8
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Gioran A, Chondrogianni N. Mitochondria (cross)talk with proteostatic mechanisms: Focusing on ageing and neurodegenerative diseases. Mech Ageing Dev 2020; 190:111324. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2020.111324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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9
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Mitochondrial fission and fusion: A dynamic role in aging and potential target for age-related disease. Mech Ageing Dev 2020; 186:111212. [PMID: 32017944 DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2020.111212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The mitochondria is the major hub to convert energy for cellular processes. Dysregulation of mitochondrial function is one of the classical hallmarks of aging, and mitochondrial interventions have repeatedly been shown to improve outcomes in age-related diseases. Crucial to mitochondrial regulation is the dynamic nature of their network structure. Mitochondria separate and merge using fission and fusion processes in response to changes in energy and stress status. While many mitochondrial processes are already characterized in relation to aging, specific evidence in multicellular organisms causally linking mitochondrial dynamics to the regulation of lifespan is limited. There does exist, however, a large body of evidence connecting mitochondrial dynamics to other aging-related cellular processes and implicates them in a number of human diseases. Here, we discuss the mechanisms of mitochondrial fission and fusion, the current evidence of their role in aging of multicellular organisms, and how these connect to cell cycle regulation, quality control, and transmission of energy status. Finally, we discuss the current evidence implicating these processes in age-related human pathologies, such as neurodegenerative or cardio-metabolic diseases. We suggest that deeper understanding of the regulatory mechanisms within this system and downstream implications could benefit in understanding and intervention of these conditions.
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Long RT, Peng JB, Huang LL, Jiang GP, Liao YJ, Sun H, Hu YD, Liao XH. Augmenter of Liver Regeneration Alleviates Renal Hypoxia-Reoxygenation Injury by Regulating Mitochondrial Dynamics in Renal Tubular Epithelial Cells. Mol Cells 2019; 42:893-905. [PMID: 31822044 PMCID: PMC6939649 DOI: 10.14348/molcells.2019.0060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Revised: 07/14/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles that constantly undergo fission and fusion processes that closely related to their function. Disruption of mitochondrial dynamics has been demonstrated in acute kidney injury (AKI), which could eventually result in cell injury and death. Previously, we reported that augmenter of liver regeneration (ALR) alleviates renal tubular epithelial cell injury. Here, we gained further insights into whether the renoprotective roles of ALR are associated with mitochondrial dynamics. Changes in mitochondrial dynamics were examined in experimental models of renal ischemia-reperfusion (IR). In a model of hypoxia-reoxygenation (HR) injury in vitro , dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) and mitochondrial fission process protein 1 (MTFP1), two key proteins of mitochondrial fission, were downregulated in the Lv-ALR + HR group. ALR overexpression additionally had an impact on phosphorylation of Drp1 Ser637 during AKI. The inner membrane fusion protein, Optic Atrophy 1 (OPA1), was significantly increased whereas levels of outer membrane fusion proteins Mitofusin-1 and -2 (Mfn1, Mfn2) were not affected in the Lv-ALR + HR group, compared with the control group. Furthermore, the mTOR/4E-BP1 signaling pathway was highly activated in the Lv-ALR + HR group. ALR overexpression led to suppression of HR-induced apoptosis. Our collective findings indicate that ALR gene transfection alleviates mitochondrial injury, possibly through inhibiting fission and promoting fusion of the mitochondrial inner membrane, both of which contribute to reduction of HK-2 cell apoptosis. Additionally, fission processes are potentially mediated by promoting tubular cell survival through activating the mTOR/4E-BP1 signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui-ting Long
- Department of Nephrology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010,
China
| | - Jun-bo Peng
- Department of Nephrology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010,
China
| | - Li-li Huang
- Department of Nephrology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010,
China
| | - Gui-ping Jiang
- Department of Nephrology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010,
China
| | - Yue-juan Liao
- Department of Nephrology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010,
China
| | - Hang Sun
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Infectious Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute for Viral Hepatitis, Department of Infectious Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010,
China
| | - Yu-dong Hu
- Department of Nephrology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010,
China
| | - Xiao-hui Liao
- Department of Nephrology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010,
China
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11
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy Shutt
- Departments of Medical Genetics and Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Cumming School of Medicine, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.
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