Mycobacterial origin protein Rv0674 localizes into mitochondria, interacts with D-loop and regulates OXPHOS for intracellular persistence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Monitoring the mitochondrial localization of mycobacterial proteins

Mitochondrion apart from being the energy hub of the cell, is also the center of various signaling pathways. During intracellular infection, either bacterial or viral, several pathogen proteins, metabolites, and possibly, lipids interact with the host mitochondria. These interactions allow the pathogens, such as Mtb, to reprogram the host mitochondrial functions, screwing the host immune responses and resulting in the persistence of the bacteria. Therefore, mitochondria offer a critical target organelle for various therapeutic interventions. This chapter deals with methods to demonstrate and establish the mitochondrial localization of Mtb proteins by confocal microscopy and mitochondrial enrichment. Transient transfection of mammalian constructs or infection Mycolicibacterium smegmatis infection could be used to overexpress the candidate Mtb protein in host cells, allowing the study of changes in the mitochondria's composition and function with regard to localization studies, mitochondrial DNA and RNA, proteomics, metabolomics, lipidomics, and bioenergetics.

C-terminal region of Rv1039c (PPE15) protein of Mycobacterium tuberculosis targets host mitochondria to induce macrophage apoptosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) genome possesses a unique family called Proline-Glutamate/Proline-Proline-Glutamate (PE/PPE) gene family, exclusive to pathogenic mycobacterium. Some of these proteins are known to play role in virulence and immune response modulation, but many are still uncharacterized. This study investigated the role of C-terminal region of Rv1039c (PPE15) in inducing mitochondrial perturbations and macrophage apoptosis. Our in-silico studies revealed the disordered, coiled, and hydrophobic C-terminal region in Rv1039c has similarity with C-terminal of mitochondria-targeting pro-apoptotic host proteins. Wild type Rv1039c and C-terminal deleted Rv1039c (Rv1039c-/-Cterm) recombinant proteins were purified and their M. smegmatis knock-in strains were constructed which were used for in-vitro experiments. Confocal microscopy showed localization of Rv1039c to mitochondria of PMA-differentiated THP1 macrophages; and reduced mitochondrial membrane depolarization and production of mitochondrial superoxides were observed in response to Rv1039c-/-Cterm in comparison to full-length Rv1039c. The C-terminal region of Rv1039c was found to activate caspases 3, 7 and 9 along with upregulated expression of pro-apoptotic genes like Bax and Bim. Rv1039c-/-Cterm also reduced the Cytochrome-C release from the mitochondria and the expression of AnnexinV/PI positive and TUNEL positive cells as compared to Rv1039c. Additionally, Rv1039c was observed to upregulate the TLR4-NF-κB-TNF-α signalling whereas the same was downregulated in response to Rv1039c-/-Cterm. These findings suggested that the C-terminal region of Rv1039c is a molecular mimic of pro-apoptotic host proteins which induce mitochondria-dependent macrophage apoptosis and evoke host immune response. These observations enhance our understanding about the role of PE/PPE proteins at host-pathogen interface.

Rv0547c, a functional oxidoreductase, supports Mycobacterium tuberculosis persistence by reprogramming host mitochondrial fatty acid metabolism

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) successfully thrives in the host by adjusting its metabolism and manipulating the host environment. In this study, we investigated the role of Rv0547c, a protein that carries mitochondria-targeting sequence (MTS), in mycobacterial persistence. We show that Rv0547c is a functional oxidoreductase that targets host-cell mitochondria. Interestingly, the localization of Rv0547c to mitochondria was independent of the predicted MTS but depended on specific arginine residues at the N- and C-terminals. As compared to the mitochondria-localization defective mutant, Rv0547c-2SDM, wild-type Rv0547c increased mitochondrial membrane fluidity and spare respiratory capacity. To comprehend the possible reason, comparative lipidomics was performed that revealed a reduced variability of long-chain and very long-chain fatty acids as well as altered levels of phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylinositol class of lipids upon expression of Rv0547c, explaining the increased membrane fluidity. Additionally, the over representation of propionate metabolism and β-oxidation intermediates in Rv0547c-targeted mitochondrial fractions indicated altered fatty acid metabolism, which corroborated with changes in oxygen consumption rate (OCR) upon etomoxir treatment in HEK293T cells transiently expressing Rv0547c, resulting in enhanced mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation capacity. Furthermore, Mycobacterium smegmatis over expressing Rv0547c showed increased persistence during infection of THP-1 macrophages, which correlated with its increased expression in Mtb during oxidative and nutrient starvation stresses. This study identified for the first time an Mtb protein that alters mitochondrial metabolism and aids in survival in host macrophages by altering fatty acid metabolism to its benefit and, at the same time increases mitochondrial spare respiratory capacity to mitigate infection stresses and maintain cell viability.

Role of PE/PPE proteins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in triad of host mitochondria, oxidative stress and cell death

The PE and PPE family proteins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is exclusively found in pathogenic Mycobacterium species, comprising approximately 8-10 % of the Mtb genome. These emerging virulent factors have been observed to play pivotal roles in Mtb pathogenesis and immune evasion through various strategies. These immunogenic proteins are known to modulate the host immune response and cell-death pathways by targeting the powerhouse of the cell, the mitochondria to support Mtb survival. In this article, we are focused on how PE/PPE family proteins target host mitochondria to induce mitochondrial perturbations, modulate the levels of cellular ROS (Reactive oxygen species) and control cell death pathways. We observed that the time of expression of these proteins at different stages of infection is crucial for elucidating their impact on the cell death pathways and eventually on the outcome of infection. This article focuses on understanding the contributions of the PE/PPE proteins by unravelling the triad of host mitochondria, oxidative stress and cell death pathways that facilitate the Mtb persistence. Understanding the role of these proteins in host cellular pathways and the intricate mechanisms paves the way for the development of novel therapeutic strategies to combat TB infections.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis Rv1043c regulates the inflammatory response by inhibiting the phosphorylation of TAK1

Mycobacterium tuberculosis can manipulate the host immunity through its effectors to ensure intracellular survival and colonization. Rv1043c has been identified as an effector potentially involved in M. tuberculosis pathogenicity. To explore the function of M. tuberculosis Rv1043c during infection, we overexpressed this protein in M. smegmatis, a non-pathogenic surrogate model in tuberculosis research. Here, we reported that Rv1043c enhanced mycobacterial survival and down-regulated the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines in macrophages and mice. In addition, Rv1043c inhibited the activation of MAPK and NF-κB signaling by preventing the phosphorylation of TAK1 indirectly. In conclusion, these data suggest that Rv1043c regulates the immune response and enhances the survival of recombinant M. smegmatis in vitro and in vivo.

Host and microbial regulation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species during mycobacterial infections

Mycobacteria, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), pose challenges in treatment due to their increased resistance to antibiotics. Following infection, mycobacteria and their components trigger robust innate and inflammatory immune responses intricately associated with the modulation of mitochondrial functions, including oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and metabolism. Certainly, mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) are an inevitable by-product of OXPHOS and function as a bactericidal weapon; however, an excessive accumulation of mtROS are linked to pathological inflammation and necroptotic cell death during mycobacterial infection. Despite previous studies outlining various host pathways involved in regulating mtROS levels during antimicrobial responses in mycobacterial infection, our understanding of the precise mechanisms orchestrating the fine regulation of this response remains limited. Emerging evidence suggests that mycobacterial proteins play a role in targeting the mitochondria of the host, indicating the potential influence of microbial factors on mitochondrial functions within host cells. In this review, we provide an overview of how both host and Mtb factors influence mtROS generation during infection. A comprehensive study of host and microbial factors that target mtROS will shed light on innovative approaches for effectively managing drug-resistant mycobacterial infections.

PE_PGRS45 (Rv2615c) protein of Mycobacterium tuberculosis perturbs mitochondria of macrophages

The PE_PGRS proteins have coevolved with the antigenic ESX-V secretory system and are abundant in pathogenic Mycobacterium. Only a few PE_PGRS proteins have been characterized, and research suggests their role in organelle targeting, cell death pathways, calcium (Ca2+ ) homeostasis and disease pathogenesis. The PE_PGRS45 (Rv2615c) protein was predicted to contain mitochondria targeting sequences by in silico evaluation. Therefore, we investigated the targeting of the Rv2615c protein to host mitochondria and its effect on mitochondrial functions. In vitro experiments showed the Rv2615c protein colocalized with the mitochondria and led to morphological mitochondrial perturbations. Recombinant Rv2615c was observed to cause increased levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species and the adenosine diphosphate-to-adenosine triphosphate ratio. The Rv2615c protein also induced mitochondrial membrane depolarization and the generation of mitochondrial superoxide. We observed the release of cytochrome C into the cytoplasm and increased expression of proapoptotic genes Bax and Bim with no significant change in anti-apoptotic Bcl2 in Rv2615c-stimulated THP1 macrophages. Ca2+ is a key signaling molecule in tuberculosis pathogenesis, modulating host cell responses. As reported for other PE_PGRS proteins, Rv2615c also has Ca2+ -binding motifs and thus can modulate calcium homeostasis in the host. We also observed a high level of Ca2+ influx in THP1 macrophages stimulated with Rv2615c. Based on these findings, we suggest that Rv2615c may be an effector protein that could contribute to disease pathogenesis by targeting host mitochondria.

Role of mitochondria in regulating immune response during bacterial infection

Mitochondria are dynamic organelles of eukaryotes involved in energy production and fatty acid oxidation. Besides maintaining ATP production, calcium signaling, cellular apoptosis, and fatty acid synthesis, mitochondria are also known as the central hub of the immune system as it regulates the innate immune pathway during infection. Mitochondria mediated immune functions mainly involve regulation of reactive oxygen species production, inflammasome activation, cytokine secretion, and apoptosis of infected cells. Recent findings indicate that cellular mitochondria undergo constant biogenesis, fission, fusion and degradation, and these dynamics regulate cellular immuno-metabolism. Several intracellular pathogens target and modulate these normal functions of mitochondria to facilitate their own survival and growth. De-regulation of mitochondrial functions and dynamics favors bacterial infection and pathogens are able to protect themselves from mitochondria mediated immune responses. Here, we will discuss how mitochondria mediated anti-bacterial immune pathways help the host to evade pathogenic insult. In addition, examples of bacterial pathogens modulating mitochondrial metabolism and dynamics will also be elaborated. Study of these interactions between the mitochondria and bacterial pathogens during infection will lead to a better understanding of the mitochondrial metabolism pathways and dynamics important for the establishment of bacterial diseases. In conclusion, detailed studies on how mitochondria regulate the immune response during bacterial infection can open up new avenues to develop mitochondria centric anti-bacterial therapeutics.

Role of C-terminal domain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis PE6 (Rv0335c) protein in host mitochondrial stress and macrophage apoptosis

PE/PPE proteins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) target the host organelles to dictate the outcome of infection. This study investigated the significance of PE6/Rv0335c protein's unique C-terminal in causing host mitochondrial perturbations and apoptosis. In-silico analysis revealed that similar to eukaryotic apoptotic Bcl2 proteins, Rv0335c had disordered, hydrophobic C-terminal and two BH3-like motifs in which one was located at C-terminal. Also, Rv0335c's N terminal had mitochondrial targeting sequence. Since, C-terminal of Bcl2 proteins are crucial for mitochondria targeting and apoptosis; it became relevant to evaluate the role of Rv0335c's C-terminal domain in modulating host mitochondrial functions and apoptosis. To confirm this, in-vitro experiments were conducted with Rv0335c whole protein and Rv0335c∆Cterm (C-terminal domain deleted Rv0335c) protein. Rv0335c∆Cterm caused significant reduction in mitochondrial perturbations and Caspase-mediated apoptosis of THP1 macrophages in comparison to Rv0335c. However, the deletion of C-terminal domain didn't affect Rv0335c's ability to localize to mitochondria. Nine Ca²⁺ binding residues were predicted within Rv0335c and four of them were at the C-terminal. In-vitro studies confirmed that Rv0335c caused significant increase in intracellular calcium influx whereas Rv0335c∆Cterm had insignificant effect on Ca²⁺ influx. Rv0335c has been reported to be a TLR4 agonist and, we observed a significant reduction in the expression of TLR4-HLA-DR-TNF-α in response to Rv0335c∆Cterm protein also suggesting the role of Rv0335c's C-terminal domain in host-pathogen interaction. These findings indicate the possibility of Rv0335c as a molecular mimic of eukaryotic Bcl2 proteins which equips it to cause host mitochondrial perturbations and apoptosis that may facilitate pathogen persistence.

HMGA2 mediates Cr (VI)-induced metabolic reprogramming through binding to mitochondrial D-Loop region

Hexavalent chromium [Cr (VI)] exists environmentally and occupationally. It has been shown to pose a carcinogenic hazard in certain occupations. This study was to investigate the role of high mobility group A2 (HMGA2) in Cr (VI)-induced metabolism reprogramming from oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) to glycolysis in A549 and HELF cells. First, knockdown of HMGA2 by siHMGA2 significantly attenuated Cr (VI)-reduced expression of OXPHOS-related proteins (COX IV and ND1) and mitochondrial mass, indicating that HMGA2 was involved in Cr (VI)-reduced OXPHOS. Overexpression of HMGA2 by transfection of HMGA2-DNA plasmids reduced the expression of COX IV, ND1 and mitochondrial mass, suggesting the negative role of HMGA2 in OXPHOS. Secondly, both CCCP, the inhibitor of mitochondrial function, and the ER stress inhibitor, 4-phenylbutyric acid (4-PBA), decreased the level of HMGA2, indicating that the interaction of mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress resulted in Cr (VI)-induced HMGA2 expression. Further study demonstrated that ER stress/HMGA2 axis mediated the metabolism rewiring from OXPHOS to aerobic glycolysis. Notably, Cr (VI) induced the accumulation of HMGA2 proteins in mitochondria and ChIP assay demonstrated that HMGA2 proteins could bind to D-loop region of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which provided the proof for HMGA2-modulating OXPHOS. Taken together, our results suggested that the interaction of mitochondria and ER stress-enhanced HMGA2 played an important role in Cr (VI)-induced metabolic reprogramming from OXPHOS to glycolysis by binding directly to D-loop region of mtDNA. This work informs on the potential mode of action for Cr (VI)-induced tumors and builds on growing evidence regarding the contribution of cellular metabolic disruption contributing to carcinogenicity.

Control of host mitochondria by bacterial pathogens

Mitochondria control various processes that are integral to cellular and organismal homeostasis, including Ca²⁺ fluxes, bioenergetic metabolism, and cell death. Perhaps not surprisingly, multiple pathogenic bacteria have evolved strategies to subvert mitochondrial functions in support of their survival and dissemination. Here, we discuss nonimmunological pathogenic mechanisms that converge on the ability of bacteria to control the mitochondrial compartment of host cells.