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Otarbayev D, Myung K. Exploring factors influencing choice of DNA double-strand break repair pathways. DNA Repair (Amst) 2024; 140:103696. [PMID: 38820807 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2024.103696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2024] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) represent one of the most severe threats to genomic integrity, demanding intricate repair mechanisms within eukaryotic cells. A diverse array of factors orchestrates the complex choreography of DSB signaling and repair, encompassing repair pathways, such as non-homologous end-joining, homologous recombination, and polymerase-θ-mediated end-joining. This review looks into the intricate decision-making processes guiding eukaryotic cells towards a particular repair pathway, particularly emphasizing the processing of two-ended DSBs. Furthermore, we elucidate the transformative role of Cas9, a site-specific endonuclease, in revolutionizing our comprehension of DNA DSB repair dynamics. Additionally, we explore the burgeoning potential of Cas9's remarkable ability to induce sequence-specific DSBs, offering a promising avenue for precise targeting of tumor cells. Through this comprehensive exploration, we unravel the intricate molecular mechanisms of cellular responses to DSBs, shedding light on both fundamental repair processes and cutting-edge therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniyar Otarbayev
- Center for Genomic Integrity, Institute for Basic Science, Ulsan 44919, South Korea; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan 44919, South Korea
| | - Kyungjae Myung
- Center for Genomic Integrity, Institute for Basic Science, Ulsan 44919, South Korea; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan 44919, South Korea.
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2
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Huang PC, Hong S, Mimitou EP, Kim KP, Murakami H, Keeney S. Meiotic DNA break resection and recombination rely on chromatin remodeler Fun30. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.17.589955. [PMID: 38659928 PMCID: PMC11042300 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.17.589955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are nucleolytically processed to generate single-stranded DNA tails for homologous recombination. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae meiosis, this 5'-to-3' resection involves initial nicking by the Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 complex (MRX) plus Sae2, then exonucleolytic digestion by Exo1. Chromatin remodeling adjacent to meiotic DSBs is thought to be necessary for resection, but the relevant remodeling activity was unknown. Here we show that the SWI/SNF-like ATPase Fun30 plays a major, non-redundant role in resecting meiotic DSBs. A fun30 null mutation shortened resection tract lengths almost as severely as an exo1-nd (nuclease-dead) mutation, and resection was further shortened in the fun30 exo1-nd double mutant. Fun30 associates with chromatin in response to meiotic DSBs, and the constitutive positioning of nucleosomes governs resection endpoint locations in the absence of Fun30. We infer that Fun30 directly promotes both the MRX- and Exo1-dependent steps in resection, possibly by removing nucleosomes from broken chromatids. Moreover, we found that the extremely short resection in the fun30 exo1-nd double mutant is accompanied by compromised interhomolog recombination bias, leading to defects in recombination and chromosome segregation. Thus, this study also provides insight about the minimal resection lengths needed for robust recombination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Ching Huang
- Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Cornell University, New York, NY 10021
- Molecular Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Soogil Hong
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, South Korea
| | - Eleni P. Mimitou
- Molecular Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Keun P. Kim
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, South Korea
- Research Center for Biomolecules and Biosystems, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, South Korea
| | - Hajime Murakami
- Molecular Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Scott Keeney
- Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Cornell University, New York, NY 10021
- Molecular Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
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Selvam K, Wyrick JJ, Parra MA. DNA Repair in Nucleosomes: Insights from Histone Modifications and Mutants. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:4393. [PMID: 38673978 PMCID: PMC11050016 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25084393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2024] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
DNA repair pathways play a critical role in genome stability, but in eukaryotic cells, they must operate to repair DNA lesions in the compact and tangled environment of chromatin. Previous studies have shown that the packaging of DNA into nucleosomes, which form the basic building block of chromatin, has a profound impact on DNA repair. In this review, we discuss the principles and mechanisms governing DNA repair in chromatin. We focus on the role of histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) in repair, as well as the molecular mechanisms by which histone mutants affect cellular sensitivity to DNA damage agents and repair activity in chromatin. Importantly, these mechanisms are thought to significantly impact somatic mutation rates in human cancers and potentially contribute to carcinogenesis and other human diseases. For example, a number of the histone mutants studied primarily in yeast have been identified as candidate oncohistone mutations in different cancers. This review highlights these connections and discusses the potential importance of DNA repair in chromatin to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathiresan Selvam
- School of Molecular Biosciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - John J. Wyrick
- School of Molecular Biosciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - Michael A. Parra
- Department of Chemistry, Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, PA 17870, USA
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Galanti L, Peritore M, Gnügge R, Cannavo E, Heipke J, Palumbieri MD, Steigenberger B, Symington LS, Cejka P, Pfander B. Dbf4-dependent kinase promotes cell cycle controlled resection of DNA double-strand breaks and repair by homologous recombination. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2890. [PMID: 38570537 PMCID: PMC10991553 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46951-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024] Open
Abstract
DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) can be repaired by several pathways. In eukaryotes, DSB repair pathway choice occurs at the level of DNA end resection and is controlled by the cell cycle. Upon cell cycle-dependent activation, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) phosphorylate resection proteins and thereby stimulate end resection and repair by homologous recombination (HR). However, inability of CDK phospho-mimetic mutants to bypass this cell cycle regulation, suggests that additional cell cycle regulators may be important. Here, we identify Dbf4-dependent kinase (DDK) as a second major cell cycle regulator of DNA end resection. Using inducible genetic and chemical inhibition of DDK in budding yeast and human cells, we show that end resection and HR require activation by DDK. Mechanistically, DDK phosphorylates at least two resection nucleases in budding yeast: the Mre11 activator Sae2, which promotes resection initiation, as well as the Dna2 nuclease, which promotes resection elongation. Notably, synthetic activation of DDK allows limited resection and HR in G1 cells, suggesting that DDK is a key component of DSB repair pathway selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Galanti
- Cell Biology, Dortmund Life Science Center (DOLCE), TU Dortmund University, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Dortmund, Germany
- Research Group DNA Replication and Genome Integrity, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
- Genome Maintenance Mechanisms in Health and Disease, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Cologne, Germany
- Institute for Genome Stability in Aging and Disease, University of Cologne, Medical Faculty, CECAD Research Center, Cologne, Germany
| | - Martina Peritore
- Research Group DNA Replication and Genome Integrity, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
- Genome Maintenance Mechanisms in Health and Disease, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Cologne, Germany
- Institute for Genome Stability in Aging and Disease, University of Cologne, Medical Faculty, CECAD Research Center, Cologne, Germany
- DSB Repair Metabolism Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Robert Gnügge
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Elda Cannavo
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Johannes Heipke
- Cell Biology, Dortmund Life Science Center (DOLCE), TU Dortmund University, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Dortmund, Germany
- Research Group DNA Replication and Genome Integrity, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
- Institute for Genome Stability in Aging and Disease, University of Cologne, Medical Faculty, CECAD Research Center, Cologne, Germany
| | - Maria Dilia Palumbieri
- Genome Maintenance Mechanisms in Health and Disease, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Cologne, Germany
- Institute for Genome Stability in Aging and Disease, University of Cologne, Medical Faculty, CECAD Research Center, Cologne, Germany
- Research Group of Proteomics and ADP-Ribosylation Signaling, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany
| | - Barbara Steigenberger
- Mass Spectrometry Core Facility, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Lorraine S Symington
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Genetics & Development, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Petr Cejka
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona, Switzerland
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biochemistry, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH), Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Boris Pfander
- Cell Biology, Dortmund Life Science Center (DOLCE), TU Dortmund University, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Dortmund, Germany.
- Research Group DNA Replication and Genome Integrity, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany.
- Genome Maintenance Mechanisms in Health and Disease, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Cologne, Germany.
- Institute for Genome Stability in Aging and Disease, University of Cologne, Medical Faculty, CECAD Research Center, Cologne, Germany.
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Estrem B, Davis RE, Wang J. End resection and telomere healing of DNA double-strand breaks during nematode programmed DNA elimination. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.15.585292. [PMID: 38559121 PMCID: PMC10980081 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.15.585292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Most DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are harmful to genome integrity. However, some forms of DSBs are essential to biological processes, such as meiotic recombination and V(D)J recombination. DSBs are also required for programmed DNA elimination (PDE) in ciliates and nematodes. In nematodes, the DSBs are healed with telomere addition. While telomere addition sites have been well-characterized, little is known regarding the DSBs that fragment nematode chromosomes. Here, we used embryos from the nematode Ascaris to study the timing of PDE breaks and examine the DSBs and their end processing. Using END-seq, we characterize the DSB ends and demonstrate that DNA breaks are introduced before mitosis, followed by extensive end resection. The resection profile is unique for each break site, and the resection generates 3' overhangs before the addition of telomeres. Interestingly, telomere healing occurs much more frequently on retained DSB ends than on eliminated ends. This biased repair of the DSB ends in Ascaris may be due to the sequestration of the eliminated DNA into micronuclei, preventing their ends from telomere healing. Additional DNA breaks occur within the eliminated DNA in both Ascaris and Parascaris, ensuring chromosomal breakage and providing a fail-safe mechanism for nematode PDE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon Estrem
- Department of Biochemistry & Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
| | - Richard E. Davis
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Jianbin Wang
- Department of Biochemistry & Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
- UT-ORNL Graduate School of Genome Science and Technology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
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Son K, Takhaveev V, Mor V, Yu H, Dillier E, Zilio N, Püllen NJL, Ivanov D, Ulrich HD, Sturla SJ, Schärer OD. Trabectedin derails transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair to induce DNA breaks in highly transcribed genes. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1388. [PMID: 38360910 PMCID: PMC10869700 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45664-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Most genotoxic anticancer agents fail in tumors with intact DNA repair. Therefore, trabectedin, anagent more toxic to cells with active DNA repair, specifically transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair (TC-NER), provides therapeutic opportunities. To unlock the potential of trabectedin and inform its application in precision oncology, an understanding of the mechanism of the drug's TC-NER-dependent toxicity is needed. Here, we determine that abortive TC-NER of trabectedin-DNA adducts forms persistent single-strand breaks (SSBs) as the adducts block the second of the two sequential NER incisions. We map the 3'-hydroxyl groups of SSBs originating from the first NER incision at trabectedin lesions, recording TC-NER on a genome-wide scale. Trabectedin-induced SSBs primarily occur in transcribed strands of active genes and peak near transcription start sites. Frequent SSBs are also found outside gene bodies, connecting TC-NER to divergent transcription from promoters. This work advances the use of trabectedin for precision oncology and for studying TC-NER and transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kook Son
- Center for Genomic Integrity, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), 44919, Ulsan, Republic of Korea
| | - Vakil Takhaveev
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zürich, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Visesato Mor
- Center for Genomic Integrity, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), 44919, Ulsan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hobin Yu
- Center for Genomic Integrity, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), 44919, Ulsan, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biological Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 44919, Ulsan, Republic of Korea
| | - Emma Dillier
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zürich, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Nicola Zilio
- Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Nikolai J L Püllen
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zürich, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Dmitri Ivanov
- Center for Genomic Integrity, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), 44919, Ulsan, Republic of Korea
| | - Helle D Ulrich
- Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Shana J Sturla
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zürich, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Orlando D Schärer
- Center for Genomic Integrity, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), 44919, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Biological Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 44919, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
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Bossaert M, Moreno A, Peixoto A, Pillaire MJ, Chanut P, Frit P, Calsou P, Loparo JJ, Britton S. Identification of the main barriers to Ku accumulation in chromatin. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.03.574002. [PMID: 38260538 PMCID: PMC10802386 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.03.574002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Repair of DNA double strand breaks by the non-homologous end-joining pathway is initiated by the binding of Ku to DNA ends. Given its high affinity for ends, multiple Ku proteins load onto linear DNAs in vitro. However, in cells, Ku loading is limited to ~1-2 molecules per DNA end. The mechanisms enforcing this limit are currently unknown. Here we show that the catalytic subunit of the DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PKcs), but not its protein kinase activity, is required to prevent excessive Ku entry into chromatin. Ku accumulation is further restricted by two mechanisms: a neddylation/FBXL12-dependent process which actively removes loaded Ku molecules throughout the cell cycle and a CtIP/ATM-dependent mechanism which operates in S-phase. Finally, we demonstrate that the misregulation of Ku loading leads to impaired transcription in the vicinity of DNA ends. Together our data shed light on the multiple layers of coordinated mechanisms operating to prevent Ku from invading chromatin and interfering with other DNA transactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeleine Bossaert
- Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (IPBS), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier (UT3), Toulouse, France
- Equipe labélisée la Ligue contre le Cancer 2018
| | - Andrew Moreno
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Antonio Peixoto
- Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (IPBS), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier (UT3), Toulouse, France
- Equipe labélisée la Ligue contre le Cancer 2018
| | - Marie-Jeanne Pillaire
- Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (IPBS), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier (UT3), Toulouse, France
- Equipe labélisée la Ligue contre le Cancer 2018
| | - Pauline Chanut
- Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (IPBS), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier (UT3), Toulouse, France
- Equipe labélisée la Ligue contre le Cancer 2018
| | - Philippe Frit
- Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (IPBS), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier (UT3), Toulouse, France
- Equipe labélisée la Ligue contre le Cancer 2018
| | - Patrick Calsou
- Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (IPBS), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier (UT3), Toulouse, France
- Equipe labélisée la Ligue contre le Cancer 2018
| | - Joseph John Loparo
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Sébastien Britton
- Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (IPBS), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier (UT3), Toulouse, France
- Equipe labélisée la Ligue contre le Cancer 2018
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Miller JM, Prange S, Ji H, Rau AR, Khodaverdian VY, Li X, Patel A, Butova N, Lutter A, Chung H, Merigliano C, Rawal CC, Hanscom T, McVey M, Chiolo I. Alternative end-joining results in smaller deletions in heterochromatin relative to euchromatin. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.03.03.531058. [PMID: 37645729 PMCID: PMC10461932 DOI: 10.1101/2023.03.03.531058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Pericentromeric heterochromatin is highly enriched for repetitive sequences prone to aberrant recombination. Previous studies showed that homologous recombination (HR) repair is uniquely regulated in this domain to enable 'safe' repair while preventing aberrant recombination. In Drosophila cells, DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) relocalize to the nuclear periphery through nuclear actin-driven directed motions before recruiting the strand invasion protein Rad51 and completing HR repair. End-joining (EJ) repair also occurs with high frequency in heterochromatin of fly tissues, but how alternative EJ (alt-EJ) pathways operate in heterochromatin remains largely uncharacterized. Here, we induce DSBs in single euchromatic and heterochromatic sites using a new system that combines the DR- white reporter and I-SceI expression in spermatogonia of flies. Using this approach, we detect higher frequency of HR repair in heterochromatin, relative to euchromatin. Further, sequencing of mutagenic repair junctions reveals the preferential use of different EJ pathways across distinct euchromatic and heterochromatic sites. Interestingly, synthesis-dependent microhomology-mediated end joining (SD-MMEJ) appears differentially regulated in the two domains, with a preferential use of motifs close to the cut site in heterochromatin relative to euchromatin, resulting in smaller deletions. Together, these studies establish a new approach to study repair outcomes in fly tissues, and support the conclusion that heterochromatin uses more HR and less mutagenic EJ repair relative to euchromatin.
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Vertemara J, Tisi R. Dynamic Properties of the DNA Damage Response Mre11/Rad50 Complex. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12377. [PMID: 37569756 PMCID: PMC10418313 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are a significant threat to cell viability due to the induction of genome instability and the potential loss of genetic information. One of the key players for early DNA damage response is the conserved Mre11/Rad50 Nbs1/Xrs2 (MRN/X) complex, which is quickly recruited to the DNA's ruptured ends and is required for their tethering and their subsequent repair via different pathways. The MRN/X complex associates with several other proteins to exert its functions, but it also exploits sophisticated internal dynamic properties to orchestrate the several steps required to address the damage. In this review, we summarize the intrinsic molecular features of the MRN/X complex through biophysical, structural, and computational analyses in order to describe the conformational transitions that allow for this complex to accomplish its multiple functions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Renata Tisi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy;
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