Biodegradability and biocompatibility: Advancements in synthetic surfactants

State-of-the-art surfactants as biomedical game changers: unlocking their potential in drug delivery, diagnostics, and tissue engineering

This review presents a comprehensive analysis of surfactant-based medicinal formulations, highlighting both their advantages and disadvantages. Surfactants enhance drug solubility, enhance targeted delivery, and facilitate controlled release of drugs. Their antimicrobial action is a result of their ability to disrupt microbial membranes, and their application in the delivery of genes and proteins involves stabilizing lipid nanoparticles for messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) vaccines and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR). Surfactants also assist in biomedical imaging and theranostics by enhancing magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast, fluorescence bioimaging, and cancer diagnosis. In tissue engineering, they assist in the manufacturing of scaffolds and coatings of biomaterials. In spite of their broad application, cytotoxicity concerns, environmental impact, and regulatory constraints bar clinical use. Biodegradable biosurfactants, stimuli-responsive intelligent surfactants, and AI-driven formulation design are areas that future studies can focus on to enhance safety and effectiveness in current healthcare applications.

Synthesis of melanin-like amino acid surfactant with enzymatic hydrolysates from silk degumming water

The degummed wastewater from silk processing contains a huge amount of amino acids and polypeptides from sericin. The silk degumming water is far from being exploited fully. Sericin in the degumming water is generally wasted and causes environmental pollution. In this study, simulated silk degumming water was hydrolyzed by alkaline protease to produce abundant amino acids and polypeptides. After enzymatic hydrolysis, the maximum free amino groups concentration in the silk degumming water was approximately 54 mM. It facilitated the recycling of silk degumming water for the production of melanin-like amino acid surfactants as raw materials. 4-Tert-butylcatechol was used as the starting material to generate o-quinone via oxidation by ceric ammonium nitrate. o-Quinone was coupled with free amino groups in enzymatic hydrolysates of silk degumming water to synthesize a sericin-based amino acid surfactant as hydrophobic and hydrophilic group, respectively. Through the green and simple synthesis route, the product was characterized to have a novel melanin-like structure. The product exhibited superior surface-active properties by lowering the surface tension to 32.39 mN m-1. Furthermore, it demonstrated good foaming ability and foam stability, with the initial foam volume of 37 mL and the foam half-life time of more than 25 min. The product owned a good emulsification ability in the oil-water emulsion with delamination time of 297 s and 291 s for emulsion formed by soybean oil and liquid paraffin, respectively. The wetting time of the canvas sheet was only 134 s. Consequently, the product showed low surface tension, good foaming, emulsifying, and wetting properties.

Elucidation of binding mechanisms of bovine serum albumin and 1-alkylsulfonates with different hydrophobic chain lengths

In this article, the binding interactions between bovine serum albumin (BSA) and three 1-alkylsulfonates, namely sodium 1-dodecanesulfonate, sodium 1-decanesulfonate, and sodium 1-octanesulfonate, have been thoroughly investigated. The study employed various experimental techniques such as isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy (SF), circular dichroism spectroscopy (CD), and molecular dynamics-based simulations. The objective was to understand the influence of the alkyl chain length of the investigated ligands on several aspects, including the strength of the interaction, the stoichiometry of the resulting complexes, the number of BSA binding sites, and the underlying mechanisms of binding. Notably, the study also demonstrated that sodium dodecyl sulfate (S12S) can serve as an effective site marker for BSA when studying ligands with similar structural and topological features. These findings may have significant implications for enhancing our understanding of the interactions between small amphiphilic molecules and proteins.

A Study of the Micellar Formation of N-Alkyl Betaine Ethyl Ester Chlorides Based on the Physicochemical Properties of Their Aqueous Solutions

In this study, a series of four surface-active compounds-N-alkyl betaine ethyl ester chlorides, CnBetC2Cl-were synthesized and characterized in aqueous solutions. As with other alkyl betaines, these amphiphiles can be practically used, for example, as co-surfactants and/or solubility enhancers acting according to hydrotropic or micellar mechanisms, depending on the alkyl chain length in the amine. We focused on the representatives of the medium alkyl chain length (C6-C12) to find the dependence between the alkyl chain length in N-alkyl betaine ethyl ester chlorides and the surface, volumetric, acoustic, and viscometric properties of their solutions. Ethyl esters, the derivatives of amino acids, were chosen to increase functionality and take advantage of possible hydrolysis in solutions at higher pH, which is also a key parameter in biodegradability. The micellization parameters were calculated based on the physicochemical characteristics. We focused our interest on the ester with a dodecyl substituent since we can compare and discuss its properties with some other C12 representatives that are available in literature. Surprisingly, its micellization characteristic is almost temperature-independent in the investigated temperature range, t = (15-45) °C. Particularly interesting are the results of dynamic light scattering (DLS), which show that the changes in physicochemical parameters of the C12 homolog around the CMC are caused by the two types of micelles of different sizes present in solutions.

Effects of sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS) on zebrafish (Danio rerio) gills and blood

Sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS) is an important surfactant used as a cleaning agent and industrial additive to remove unwanted chemicals which have been detected in the aquatic environment. The aim of this study was to examine the toxicological potential of SDBS on the gills of adult male zebrafish (Danio rerio) exposed to this chemical. For the 96 hr acute exposure, fish were divided into three groups: control, 0.25 mg/L, and 0.5 mg/L of SDBS. After the experiment, morphophysiological analyses (gill histopathology and histochemistry), oxidative stress (determination of gill activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT)), and hematological analyses (leukocyte differentiation) were conducted. Data demonstrated that SDBS at both tested concentrations altered the histopathological index and initiated circulatory disturbances, as well as adverse, progressive, and immunological changes in the gills. In the 0.5 mg/L group, SOD activity decreased significantly, but CAT activity was not altered. Prominent blood changes observed in this group were neutrophilia and lymphocytosis. The number of mucous and chloride cells increased significantly in both groups. Taken together, our findings demonstrated that exposure of D. rerio to SDBS, even for 96 hr, produced adverse morphological and hematological effects associated with a reduction in SOD activity. Our findings indicate that exposure of aquatic species to the anionic surfactant SDBS may lead to adverse consequences associated with oxidative stress. Therefore, this study highlights the risks that this substance may pose to aquatic ecosystems and emphasizes the need for further investigations and strict regulations on its disposal.

Surfactants as biodegradable sustainable inhibitors for corrosion control in diverse media and conditions: A comprehensive review

BACKGROUND

Corrosion is a challenging and potentially harmful process that involves the continuing, impulsive deterioration of metallic structures via reactions involving environmental components and electro- or chemical processes. To inhibit corrosion, various additives are added. Traditional additives, on the other hand, contain environmentally hazardous substances. Surfactants are less expensive, easier to manufacture, and have high inhibitory efficacy and low toxicity compared to standard corrosion inhibitors. They are often employed as corrosion inhibitors to protect metallic materials against corrosion.

METHODS

Surfactant molecules' amphiphilic nature promotes adsorption at surfaces such as the metal/metal oxide-water interface. Surfactant adsorption on metals and metal oxides forms a barrier that can prevent corrosion.

SIGNIFICANT FINDINGS

This review of surfactants as corrosion inhibitors aims to offer a systemic evaluation of various surfactant physical and chemical properties, surfactant influence in corrosion inhibition, and surfactant used in corrosion inhibition that can be used to enhance the efficacy of surfactant use as corrosion inhibitors in a variety of environments. The effect of several parameters on the potential to suppress corrosion of surfactant molecule series is also discussed here.

Is Micellar Catalysis Green Chemistry?

Many years ago, twelve principles were defined for carrying out chemical reactions and processes from a green chemistry perspective. It is everyone's endeavor to take these points into account as far as possible when developing new processes or improving existing ones. Especially in the field of organic synthesis, a new area of research has thus been established: micellar catalysis. This review article addresses the question of whether micellar catalysis is green chemistry by applying the twelve principles to micellar reaction media. The review shows that many reactions can be transferred from an organic solvent to a micellar medium, but that the surfactant also has a crucial role as a solubilizer. Thus, the reactions can be carried out in a much more environmentally friendly manner and with less risk. Moreover, surfactants are being reformulated in their design, synthesis, and degradation to add extra advantages to micellar catalysis to match all the twelve principles of green chemistry.

Recent Advances in the Preparation of Delivery Systems for the Controlled Release of Scents

Scents are volatile compounds highly employed in a wide range of manufactured items, such as fine perfumery, household products, and functional foods. One of the main directions of the research in this area aims to enhance the longevity of scents by designing efficient delivery systems to control the release rate of these volatile molecules and also increase their stability. Several approaches to release scents in a controlled manner have been developed in recent years. Thus, different controlled release systems have been prepared, including polymers, metal-organic frameworks and mechanically interlocked systems, among others. This review is focused on the preparation of different scaffolds to accomplish a slow release of scents, by pointing out examples reported in the last five years. In addition to discuss selected examples, a critical perspective on the state of the art of this research field is provided, comparing the different types of scent delivery systems.

Surfactant as an anti-corrosive agent: a review

Metal corrosion has always been a serious problem in industry. There has always been a need to increase the number of possible, cost-effective corrosion inhibitors. However, many commercially available corrosion inhibitors have both high efficiency and high toxicity, which has led environmental authorities to ban their use. As a result, there is growing interest in scientific research into the use of environmentally friendly compounds. Surfactants and biocompatible corrosion inhibitors are special types of chemicals suitable for long-term industrial use. Molecules with unique hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties can be used in a wide range of applications to solve solubilisation problems and improve extraction processes. The use of surfactant-based products to prevent corrosion on metallic surfaces is a new approach in the field of chemical science. This review article addresses the mechanism of corrosion on metal surfaces and discusses in detail the use of environmentally friendly, cost-effective and readily available surfactants as corrosion inhibitors. The properties and applications of different types of surfactants are also discussed.

Copolymer Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain Transfer Synthesis of Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) Functionalized with Hydrophobic Acrylates: A Study of Surface and Foam Properties

A series of amphiphilic statistical copolymers involving poly(ethylene glycol) monomethacrylate (PEGMA, -OH terminated, average Mn 200 molecular weight) and various hydrophobic acrylates were synthesized via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The gradient copolymers were characterized by gel-permeation chromatography (GPC), ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR). Solution properties of the copolymers were investigated utilizing surface tension measurement, dynamic light-scattering (DLS), as well as foam analysis using a dynamic foam analyzer (DFA). The PEG-functionalized copolymers showed a systematic trend depending on the hydrophobic moiety in properties including surface tension, critical micelle concentration (CMC), foam lifetime, and liquid drainage from the foam. Copolymers with alkyl-acrylates exhibited the best foam lifetime, demonstrating that the choice of hydrophobic moiety is crucial for foam stability. The PEG-functionalized materials described are considered promising additives for foam-stability purposes.

Biodegradable Solvents: A Promising Tool to Recover Proteins from Microalgae

The world will face a significant protein demand in the next few decades, and due to the environmental concerns linked to animal protein, new sustainable protein sources must be found. In this regard, microalgae stand as an outstanding high-quality protein source. However, different steps are needed to separate the proteins from the microalgae biomass and other biocompounds. The protein recovery from the disrupted biomass is usually the bottleneck of the process, and it typically employs organic solvents or harsh conditions, which are both detrimental to protein stability and planet health. Different techniques and methods are applied for protein recovery from various matrices, such as precipitation, filtration, chromatography, electrophoresis, and solvent extraction. Those methods will be reviewed in this work, discussing their advantages, drawbacks, and applicability to the microalgae biorefinery process. Special attention will be paid to solvent extraction performed with ionic liquids (ILs) and deep eutectic solvents (DESs), which stand as promising solvents to perform efficient protein separations with reduced environmental costs compared to classical alternatives. Finally, several solvent recovery options will be analyzed to reuse the solvent employed and isolate the proteins from the solvent phase.

Surface Activity and Efficiency of Cat-Anionic Surfactant Mixtures

The surface activity of surfactant mixtures is critically analyzed. Cat-anionic systems, in which two ionic species are mixed in non-stoichiometric ratios, are considered. With respect to the solution behavior, where a substantial decrease of cmc is met compared to the pure components, a moderate effect on surface tension, γ, occurs. Compared to the pure species, the decrease of surface tension for such mixtures is not significant, and no clear dependence on the mole fraction anionic/cationic is met. The surface tension is grossly constant in the whole concentration range. Conversely, the interaction parameter for surfaces, β_surf (calculated by the regular solution theory), is more negative than that for micelle formation, β_mic. This fact suggests that the desolvation of polar heads of the two species at interfaces is largely different. Very presumably, the underlying rationale finds origin in the sizes and solvation of both polar head groups.

Self-Assembling Drug Formulations with Tunable Permeability and Biodegradability

This review focuses on key topics in the field of drug delivery related to the design of nanocarriers answering the biomedicine criteria, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, low toxicity, and the ability to overcome biological barriers. For these reasons, much attention is paid to the amphiphile-based carriers composed of natural building blocks, lipids, and their structural analogues and synthetic surfactants that are capable of self-assembly with the formation of a variety of supramolecular aggregates. The latter are dynamic structures that can be used as nanocontainers for hydrophobic drugs to increase their solubility and bioavailability. In this section, biodegradable cationic surfactants bearing cleavable fragments are discussed, with ester- and carbamate-containing analogs, as well as amino acid derivatives received special attention. Drug delivery through the biological barriers is a challenging task, which is highlighted by the example of transdermal method of drug administration. In this paper, nonionic surfactants are primarily discussed, including their application for the fabrication of nanocarriers, their surfactant-skin interactions, the mechanisms of modulating their permeability, and the factors controlling drug encapsulation, release, and targeted delivery. Different types of nanocarriers are covered, including niosomes, transfersomes, invasomes and chitosomes, with their morphological specificity, beneficial characteristics and limitations discussed.

Surface Properties and Liquid Crystal Properties of Alkyltetra(oxyethyl) β-d-Glucopyranoside

Hydrophilic alkyl polyglycosides (APGs) and alkyl glycosides (AGs) with anomeric pure are a class of important substitutes for petroleum-based surfactants. Improving their water solubility should make such hydrophilic glycosurfactants have more excellent potential application value. To solve the inherent problem of poor water solubility of traditional alkyl β-d-glucopyranoside (5), a series of alkyltetra(oxyethyl) β-d-glucopyranosides (4a-4g, n = 7-18) were successfully synthesized by introducing tetra(oxyethylene) fragments to carry out the structural modification. The relationship between the related structure and the physicochemical properties was further investigated, including their hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB), water-solubility, foaming performance, emulsification, hygroscopicity, surface activity, and thermotropic/lyotropic liquid crystal phase behavior. The results showed that the water solubility gradually decreased as the alkyl chain length increased due to the gradual decrease of their HLB number. Octadecyltetra(oxyethyl) β-d-glucopyranoside (4g, n = 18) was found to be insoluble in water at 25 °C. Taken together, long-chain alkyl glycosides had good foaming properties and excellent emulsifying properties. Among them, dodecyltetra(oxyethyl) β-d-glucopyranoside (4d, n = 12) had the best foaming performance. In the rapeseed oil/water system, cetyltetra(oxyethyl) β-d-glucopyranoside (4f, n = 16) had the best emulsifying ability. With the increase of the alkyl chain length, the critical micelle concentration (C_cmc), γ_cmc, Γ_max, and hygroscopicity of this series of glycosides showed a downward trend. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and polarizing optical microscopy (POM) showed that the thermal stability increased with the increase of the alkyl chain length, and alkyltetra(oxyethyl) β-d-glucopyranosides (4d-4g, n = 12-18) had the corresponding melting points and clearing points. Alkyltetra(oxyethyl) β-d-glucopyranosides (4b-4g, n = 8-18) formed a smectic phase with a typical fan-shaped and focal conic texture during the cooling process. In the water contact experiments, it was found that glycosides (4b-4g, n = 8-18) at high concentrations transformed into various lyotropic liquid crystal including hexagonal phase, bicontinuous cubic phase, and lamellar phase phases. Therefore, such green nonionic glycosurfactants alkyltetra(oxyethyl) β-d-glucopyranosides should have potential practical application prospects.