An overview of the neuroprotective potential of rosmarinic acid and its association with nanotechnology-based delivery systems: A novel approach to treating neurodegenerative disorders

Natural products in the management of neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases represent one of the utmost imperative well-being health issues and apprehensions due to their escalating incidence of mortality. Natural derivatives are more efficacious in various preclinical models of neurodegenerative illnesses. These natural compounds include phytoconstituents in herbs, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and marine and freshwater flora, with remarkable efficacy in mitigating neurodegeneration and enhancing cognitive abilities in preclinical models. According to the latest research, the therapeutic activity of natural substances can be increased by adding phytoconstituents in nanocarriers such as nanoparticles, nanogels, and nanostructured lipid carriers. They can enhance the stability and specificity of the bioactive compounds to a more considerable extent. Nanotechnology can also provide targeting, enhancing their specificity to the respective site of action. In light of these findings, this article discusses the biological and therapeutic potential of natural products and their bioactive derivatives to exert neuroprotective effects and some clinical studies assessing their translational potential to treat neurodegenerative disorders.

Rosmarinic acid Ameliorates neuronal regeneration in the bridging silicone rubber conduits of the sciatic nerve in taxol-treated rats

Background and aim

Taxol modulates local inflammatory conditions in peripheral nerves, which may impair their regeneration and recovery when injured. This study aimed to determine the effects of rosmarinic acid (RA, a polyphenol constituent of many culinary herbs) on the regeneration of the sciatic nerves in the bridging conduits.

Experimental procedure

In the cell study, RA decreased nuclear factor (NF)-κB activity induced by taxol in a dose dependency. In the animal model, taxol-treated rats were divided into 3 groups (n = 10/group): taxol (2 mg/kg body weight for 4 times) and taxol + RA (3 times/week for 4 weeks at 20 and 40 mg/kg body weight) groups. Macrophage infiltration, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) expression levels, neuronal connectivity, animal behavior, and neuronal electrophysiology were evaluated.

Results and conclusion

At the end of 4 weeks, macrophage density, CGRP expression level, and axon number significantly increased in the RA group compared with the taxol group. The RA administration unaffected heat, cold plate licking latencies, and motor coordination. Moreover, the 40 mg/kg RA group had significantly larger nerve conduction velocity and less latency compared to the taxol group. This study suggested that RA could ameliorate local inflammatory conditions to augment the recovery of regenerating nerves by accelerating their regrowth and improving electrophysiological function in taxol-treated peripheral nerve injury repaired with the silicone rubber conduit.

Therapeutic Potential of Natural Compounds from Herbs and Nutraceuticals in Alleviating Neurological Disorders: Targeting the Wnt Signaling Pathway

As an important signaling pathway in multicellular eukaryotes, the Wnt signaling pathway participates in a variety of physiological processes. Recent studies have confirmed that the Wnt signaling pathway plays an important role in neurological disorders such as stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease. The regulation of Wnt signaling by natural compounds in herbal medicines and nutraceuticals has emerged as a potential strategy for the development of new drugs for neurological disorders. Purpose: The aim of this review is to evaluate the latest research results on the efficacy of natural compounds derived from herbs and nutraceuticals in the prevention and treatment of neurological disorders by regulating the Wnt pathway in vivo and in vitro. A manual and electronic search was performed for English articles available from PubMed, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect from the January 2010 to February 2023. Keywords used for the search engines were "natural products,″ "plant derived products,″ "Wnt+ clinical trials,″ and "Wnt+,″ and/or paired with "natural products″/″plant derived products", and "neurological disorders." A total of 22 articles were enrolled in this review, and a variety of natural compounds from herbal medicine and nutritional foods have been shown to exert therapeutic effects on neurological disorders through the Wnt pathway, including curcumin, resveratrol, and querctrin, etc. These natural products possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and angiogenic properties, confer neurovascular unit and blood-brain barrier integrity protection, and affect neural stem cell differentiation, synaptic formation, and neurogenesis, to play a therapeutic role in neurological disorders. In various in vivo and in vitro studies and clinical trials, these natural compounds have been shown to be safe and tolerable with few adverse effects. Natural compounds may serve a therapeutic role in neurological disorders by regulating the Wnt pathway. This summary of the research progress of natural compounds targeting the Wnt pathway may provide new insights for the treatment of neurological disorders and potential targets for the development of new drugs.

Investigation on the molecular, electronic and spectroscopic properties of rosmarinic acid: an intuition from an experimental and computational perspective

Various drugs such as corticosteroids, salbutamol, and β2 agonist are available for the treatment of asthma an inflammatory disease and its symptoms, although the ingredient and the mode of action of these drugs are not clearly elucidated. Hence this research aimed at carrying out improved scientific research with respect to the use of natural product rosmarinic acid which poses minima, side effects. Herein, we first carried out extraction, isolation, and spectroscopic (FT-IR, 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR) investigation, followed by molecular modeling analysis on the naturally occurring rosmarinic acid extracted from Rosmarinus officinalis. A detailed comparison of the experimental and theoretical vibrational analysis has been carried out using five DFT functionals: BHANDH, HSEH1PBE, M06-2X, MPW3PBE and THCTHHYB with the basis set 6-311++G (d, p) to investigate into the structural, reactivity, and stability of the isolated compound. Frontier molecular orbital analysis and appropriate quantum descriptors were calculated. Results showed that the compound was more stable at M06-2X and more reactive at HSEH1PBE with an energy gap of 6.43441 eV and 3.8047 eV, respectively, which was later affirmed by the global quantum reactivity parameters. From natural bond orbital analysis, π* → π* is the major contributor to electron transition with the summation perturbation energy of 889.57 kcal/mol, while π → π* had the perturbation energy totaling of 145.3 kcal/mol. Geometry analysis shows BHANDH to have lower bond length values and lesser deviation from 120° in carbon-carbon angle. The potency of the title molecule as an asthma drug was tested via a molecular docking approach and the binding score of -8.2 kcal/mol was observed against -7.0 of salbutamol standard drug, suggesting romarinic acid as a potential natural organic treatment for asthma.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Therapeutic targeting of microtubule affinity-regulating kinase 4 in cancer and neurodegenerative diseases

Microtubule affinity-regulating kinase 4 (MARK4) is a member of the Ser/Thr protein kinase family, phosphorylates the microtubule-connected proteins and plays a vital role in causing cancers and neurodegenerative diseases. This kinase modulates multiple signaling pathways, including mammalian target of rapamycin, nuclear factor-κB, and Hippo-signaling, presumably responsible for cancer and Alzheimer's. MARK4 acts as a negative controller of the Hippo-kinase cassette for promoting YAP/TAZ action, and the loss of MARK4 detains the tumorigenic properties of cancer cells. MARK4 is involved in tau hyperphosphorylation that consequently affects neurodegeneration. MARK4 is a promising drug target for cancer, diabetes, and Alzheimer's. Developing the potent and selective inhibitors of MAKR4 are promising in the therapeutic management of associated diseases. Despite its great significance, a few reviews are available to discuss its structure, function and clinical significance. In the current review, we aimed to provide detailed information on the structural features of MARK4 targeted in drug development and its role in various signaling pathways related to cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. We further described the therapeutic potential of MARK4 inhibitors in preventing numerous diseases. Finally, the updated information on MARK4 will be helpful in the further development of effective therapeutic molecules.

Composition and chronic toxicity of dry methanol-aqueous extract of wild-growing Satureja montana

INTRODUCTION

Saturejamontana is a wild growing medicinal plant, part of the Lamiaceae family. This herb is well known as a source of phenolic compounds, which can vary in a broad range depending on different factors and exert many pharmacological activities.

Antiaging properties of antioxidant photoprotective polymeric nanoparticles loaded with coenzyme-Q10

Skin is the most extensive organ within our body. It is continually subjected to stress factors, among which ultraviolet irradiation, a key factor responsible in skin aging since it leads to reactive oxygen species production. In order to fight against these oxidative species, the human body has an innate robust antioxidant mechanism composed of several different substances, one of which is coenzyme Q₁₀. Its capacity to increase cellular energy production and excellent antioxidant properties have been proved, as well as its antiaging properties being able to attenuate cellular damage induced by ultraviolet irradiation in human dermal fibroblasts. However, its high hydrophobicity and photolability hampers its therapeutic potential. In this context, the objective of this work consists of the preparation of chitosan-rosmarinic acid conjugate-based nanoparticles to encapsulate coenzyme Q10 with high encapsulation efficiencies in order to improve its bioavailability and broaden its therapeutic use in skin applications. Hyaluronic acid coating was performed giving stable nanoparticles at physiological pH with 382 ± 3 nm of hydrodynamic diameter (0.04 ± 0.02 polydispersity) and - 18 ± 3 mV of surface charge. Release kinetics studies showed a maximum of 82 % mass release of coenzyme Q₁₀ after 40 min, and radical scavenger activity assay confirmed the antioxidant character of chitosan-rosmarinic acid nanoparticles. Hyaluronic acid-coated chitosan-rosmarinic acid nanoparticles loaded with coenzyme Q₁₀ were biocompatible in human dermal fibroblasts and exhibited interesting photoprotective properties in ultraviolet irradiated cells. In addition, nanoparticles hindered the production of reactive oxygen species, interleukin-6 and metalloproteinase-1, as well as caspase-9 activation maintaining high viability values upon irradiation of dermal fibroblasts. Overall results envision a great potential of these nanovehicles for application in skin disorders or antiaging treatments.

Structure-activity relationship of a housefly neuroprotective dodecapeptide that activates the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 pathway

Neuroprotective antioxidants, especially peptide-based antioxidants, are effective against oxidative stress in neurodegenerative disorders. In this study, we measured the neuroprotective effects of the antioxidant peptide DFTPVCTTELGR (DR12) from housefly Musca domestica L. pupae. Treatment of PC12 and HT22 cells with DR12 significantly reduced glutamate-induced cytotoxicity. Peptide DR12 appeared to exert its neuroprotective effects by attenuating production of reactive oxygen species and malonaldehyde, upregulating the endogenous antioxidants superoxide dismutase and glutathione, and reversing the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. In addition, DR12 treatment activated the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/heme oxygenase-1 signaling pathway. Structure-activity analysis indicated that the superior neuroprotective function of DR12 was related to its cysteine residue. In summary, DR12 may be an attractive therapeutic peptide or precursor to treat neurodegenerative diseases.

Mucus adhesion vs. mucus penetration? Screening nanomaterials for nasal inhalation by MD simulation

Nanocarrier-aided drug delivery techniques have improved the absorption and permeability of drugs in nose-to-brain delivery. However, the molecular properties of nanocarriers during the delivery process are of great interest; in particular, the characteristics when penetrating barriers in vivo are crucial for the screening and optimization of materials for nasal inhalation. In this study, we have focused on two types of delivery systems: mucoadhesive nanoparticles (MAPs) and mucopenetrating nanoparticles (MPPs); both have been widely used for mucosal delivery, although a method for selecting the more effective type of drug carriers for mucosal delivery has not been established. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were used to reveal the all-atom dynamic characteristics of the interaction between different delivery systems and the nasal mucus protein MUC5AC. Among the systems tested, hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan (HTCC) had the strongest interaction with mucin, suggesting it had better mucoadhesive performance, and that it interacted with MUC5AC more strongly than unmodified chitosan. In contrast, the mucus-penetrating material polyethylene glycol-poly lactic acid-co-glycolic acid (PEG-PLGA), had almost no interaction with MUC5AC. The results of the MD simulations were verified by in vitro experiments on nanoparticles (NPs) and mucin binding. The drug delivery performance of the four types of NPs, analyzed by in vitro and ex vivo mucosal penetration, were all generally consistent with the properties of the material predicted from the MD simulation. These clues to the molecular mechanism of MAPs and MPPs may provide useful insight into the screening and optimization of nanomaterials suitable for nasal inhalation.

Oral Pharmacokinetics of Hydroxycinnamic Acids: An Updated Review

Hydroxycinnamic acids (HCAs) such as caffeic acid (CA), chlorogenic acid (CGA), coumaric acid (COA) isomers, ferulic acid (FA) and rosmarinic acid (RA) are natural phenolic acids with widespread distribution in vegetal foods and well-documented pharmacological activities. However, the low bioavailability of HCAs impairs their administration by the oral route. The present review addresses new findings and important factors/obstacles for their oral administration, which were unexplored in the reviews published a decade ago concerning the bioavailability of phenolic acids. Based on this, the article aims to perform an updated review of the water solubility and gastrointestinal stability of HCAs, as well as describe their oral absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) processes by in vitro, ex vivo, in situ and in vivo methods.

Rosmarinic acid exerts anti-inflammatory effect and relieves oxidative stress via Nrf2 activation in carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage

Background

Rosmarinic acid (RA) has biological and pharmaceutical properties and shows hepatoprotective potential. However, the hepatoprotective mechanism of RA needs to be further elucidated in vivo and in vitro.

Objective

This study was aimed to evaluate the protective effect of RA on carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver injury and elucidate the hepatoprotective mechanism of RA in vivo and in vitro.

Design

In vivo, the mice were orally administrated with RA (10, 20, and 40 mg/kg bw) daily for 28 consecutive days, and 1% CCl₄ (5 mL/kg bw, dissolved in peanut oil) was used to induce liver injury. In vitro, the big rat liver (BRL) hepatocytes were pretreated with RA (0.2, 0.4, and 0.8 mg/mL) for 3 h, and then the hepatocytes were treated with CC1₄ (final concentration, 14 mM) for 3 h to induce cell injury. The related indexes, including hepatic function, oxidative stress, protein expression of nuclear-factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway, inflammation, histopathological change, hepatocyte apoptosis, and mitochondrial membrane potential, were evaluated.

Results

Oral administration of RA to mice considerably decreased the CCl₄-induced elevation of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), triacylglycerols (TG), total cholesterol (TC), total bilirubin (TBIL), hepatic reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-8 (IL-8). RA also increased the levels of hepatic glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) and the protein expressions of Nrf2, quinine oxidoreductase (NQO1), and heme oxygenease-1 (HO-1). Histopathological examinations indicated that RA (20 and 40 mg/kg bw) alleviated the liver tissue injury induced by CCl₄. Moreover, RA inhibited the hepatocyte apoptosis caused by CCl₄ based on TUNEL assay. In vitro, RA pretreatment remarkably recovered the cell viability and reduced the CCl₄-induced elevation of AST, ALT, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), ROS, and 8-OHdG. Immunohistochemistry staining demonstrated that pretreatment with RA markedly inhibited the expression of IL-6, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and Caspase-3 in CCl₄-treated hepatocytes. Additionally, RA pretreatment significantly decreased the elevation of mitochondrial membrane potential in CCl₄-treated hepatocytes.

Conclusions

RA exerted a protective effect against CCl₄-induced liver injury in mice through activating Nrf2 signaling pathway, reducing antioxidant damage, suppressing inflammatory response, and inhibiting hepatocyte apoptosis. RA could attenuate BRL hepatocyte ROS production, DNA oxidative damage, inflammatory response, and apoptosis induced by CCl₄ exposure.

Cyclodextrin Derivatives as Promising Solubilizers to Enhance the Biological Activity of Rosmarinic Acid

Rosmarinic acid (RA) is a natural antioxidant with neuroprotective properties; however, its preventive and therapeutic use is limited due to its slight solubility and poor permeability. This study aimed to improve RA physicochemical properties by systems formation with cyclodextrins (CDs): hydroxypropyl-α-CD (HP-α-CD), HP-β-CD, and HP-γ-CD, which were prepared by the solvent evaporation (s.e.) method. The interactions between components were determined by X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The sites of interaction between RA and CDs were suggested as a result of in silico studies focused on assessing the interaction between molecules. The impact of amorphous systems formation on water solubility, dissolution rate, gastrointestinal (GIT) permeability, and biological activity was studied. RA solubility was increased from 5.869 mg/mL to 113.027 mg/mL, 179.840 mg/mL, and 194.354 mg/mL by systems formation with HP-α-CD, HP-β-CD, and HP-γ-CD, respectively. During apparent solubility studies, the systems provided an acceleration of RA dissolution. Poor RA GIT permeability at pH 4.5 and 5.8, determined by parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA system), was increased; RA–HP-γ-CD s.e. indicated the greatest improvement (at pH 4.5 from P_app 6.901 × 10⁻⁷ cm/s to 1.085 × 10⁻⁶ cm/s and at pH 5.8 from 5.019 × 10⁻⁷ cm/s to 9.680 × 10⁻⁷ cm/s). Antioxidant activity, which was determined by DPPH, ABTS, CUPRAC, and FRAP methods, was ameliorated by systems; the greatest results were obtained for RA–HP-γ-CD s.e. The inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) was increased from 36.876% for AChE and 13.68% for BChE to a maximum inhibition of the enzyme (plateau), and enabled reaching IC₅₀ values for both enzymes by all systems. CDs are efficient excipients for improving RA physicochemical and biological properties. HP-γ-CD was the greatest one with potential for future food or dietary supplement applications.

Anxiolytic and antidepressive potentials of rosmarinic acid: A review with a focus on antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects

Depression and anxiety are the most prevalent neuropsychiatric disorders that have emerged as global health concerns. Anxiolytic and antidepressant drugs, such as benzodiazepines, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and tricyclics, are the first line used in treating anxiety and depression. Although these drugs lack efficacy and have a delayed response time and numerous side effects, their widespread abuse and market continue to grow. Over time, traditional practices using natural and phytochemicals as alternative therapies to chemical drugs have emerged to treat many pathological conditions, including anxiety and depression. Recent preclinical studies have demonstrated that the phenolic compound, rosmarinic acid, is effective against several neuropsychiatric disorders, including anxiety and depression. In addition, rosmarinic acid showed various pharmacological effects, such as cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, lung protective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects. However, the potentialities of the use of rosmarinic acid in the treatment of nervous system-related disorders, such as anxiety and depression, are less or not yet reviewed. Therefore, the purpose of this review was to present several preclinical and clinical studies, when available, from different databases investigating the effects of rosmarinic acid on anxiety and depression. These studies showed that rosmarinic acid produces advantageous effects on anxiety and depression through its powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. This review will examine and discuss the possibility that the anxiolytic and anti-depressive effects of rosmarinic acid could be associated with its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities.

Inorganic Nanomaterials Versus Polymer-Based Nanoparticles for Overcoming Neurodegeneration

Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) affect a great number of people worldwide and also have a significant socio-economic impact on the aging population. In this context, nanomedicine applied to neurological disorders provides several biotechnological strategies and nanoformulations that improve life expectancy and the quality of life of patients affected by brain disorders. However, available treatments are limited by the presence of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and the blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier (B–CSFB). In this regard, nanotechnological approaches could overcome these obstacles by updating various aspects (e.g., enhanced drug-delivery efficiency and bioavailability, BBB permeation and targeting the brain parenchyma, minimizing side effects). The aim of this review is to carefully explore the key elements of different neurological disorders and summarize the available nanomaterials applied for neurodegeneration therapy looking at several types of nanocarriers. Moreover, nutraceutical-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) and synthesized NPs using green approaches are also discussed underling the need to adopt eco-friendly procedures with a low environmental impact. The proven antioxidant properties related to several natural products provide an interesting starting point for developing efficient and green nanotools useful for neuroprotection.

A Comprehensive Review of Rosmarinic Acid: From Phytochemistry to Pharmacology and Its New Insight

Polyphenolic acids are the widely occurring natural products in almost each herbal plant, among which rosmarinic acid (RA, C18H16O8) is well-known, and is present in over 160 species belonging to many families, especially the Lamiaceae. Aside from this herbal ingredient, dozens of its natural derivatives have also been isolated and characterized from many natural plants. In recent years, with the increasing focus on the natural products as alternative treatments, a large number of pharmacological studies have been carried out to demonstrate the various biological activities of RA such as anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, anti-diabetes, anti-virus, anti-tumor, neuroprotection, hepatoprotection, etc. In addition, investigations concerning its biosynthesis, extraction, analysis, clinical applications, and pharmacokinetics have also been performed. Although many achievements have been made in various research aspects, there still exist some problems or issues to be answered, especially its toxicity and bioavailability. Thus, we hope that in the case of natural products, the present review can not only provide a comprehensive understanding on RA covering its miscellaneous research fields, but also highlight some of the present issues and future perspectives worth investigating later, in order to help us utilize this polyphenolic acid more efficiently, widely, and safely.

Biomedical features and therapeutic potential of rosmarinic acid

For decades, the use of secondary metabolites of various herbs has been an attractive strategy in combating human diseases. Rosmarinic acid (RA) is a bioactive phenolic compound commonly found in plants of Lamiaceae and Boraginaceae families. RA is biosynthesized using amino acids tyrosine and phenylalanine via enzyme-catalyzed reactions. However, the chemical synthesis of RA involves an esterification reaction between caffeic acid and 3,4-dihydroxy phenyl lactic acid contributing two phenolic rings to the structure of RA. Several studies have ascertained multiple therapeutic benefits of RA in various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, inflammatory disorders, neurodegenerative disorders, and liver diseases. Many previous scientific papers indicate that RA can be used as an anti-plasmodic, anti-viral and anti-bacterial drug. In addition, due to its high anti-oxidant capacity, this natural polyphenol has recently gained attention for its possible application as a nutraceutical compound in the food industry. Here we provide state-of-the-art, flexible therapeutic potential and biomedical features of RA, its implications and multiple uses. Along with various valuable applications in safeguarding human health, this review further summarizes the therapeutic advantages of RA in various human diseases, including cancer, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, the challenges associated with the clinical applicability of RA have also been discussed.

Chitosan - Rosmarinic acid conjugates with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and photoprotective properties

Rosmarinic acid is an attractive candidate for skin applications because of its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and photoprotective functions, however, its poor bioavailability hampers its therapeutic outcome. In this context, synthesis of polymer conjugates is an alternative to enlarge its applications. This work describes the synthesis of novel water-soluble chitosan - rosmarinic acid conjugates (CSRA) that have great potential for skin applications. Chitosan was functionalized with different contents of rosmarinic acid as confirmed by ATR-FTIR, 1H NMR and UV spectroscopies. CSRA conjugates presented three-fold radical scavenger capacity compared to the free phenolic compound. Films were prepared by solvent-casting procedure and the biological activity of the lixiviates was studied in vitro. Results revealed that lixiviates reduced activation of inflamed macrophages, improved antibacterial capacity against E. coli with respect to native chitosan and free rosmarinic acid, and also attenuated UVB-induced cellular damage and reactive oxygen species production in fibroblasts and keratinocytes.

Antidepressant-like effect of rosmarinic acid during LPS-induced neuroinflammatory model: The potential role of cannabinoid receptors/PPAR-γ signaling pathway

Rosmarinic acid (RA), an ester of caffeic acid and 3, 4-dihydroxyphenyllactic acid, has anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activities. Herein, this study investigated in silico the drug-likeness and the potential molecular targets to RA. Moreover, it tested the antidepressant-like potential of RA in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced depression model. RA (MW = 360.31 g/mol) meets the criteria of both Lipinski's rule of five and the Ghose filter. It also attends to relevant pharmacokinetic parameters. Target prediction analysis identified RA's potential targets and biological activities, including the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) and the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2 . In vivo, RA's acute, repetitive, and therapeutic administration showed antidepressant-like effect since it significantly reduced the immobility time in the tail suspension test and increased grooming time in the splash test. Further, the pretreatment with antagonists of CB1 , CB2 , and PPAR-γ receptors significantly blocked the antidepressant-like effect of RA. Altogether, our findings suggest that cannabinoid receptors/PPAR-γ signaling pathways are involved with the antidepressant-like effect of RA. Moreover, this molecule meets important physicochemical and pharmacokinetic parameters that favor its bioavailability. RA constitutes a promising, innovative, and safe molecule for the pharmacotherapy of major depressive disorder.

Investigation of the long-term stability of various tinctures belonging to the lamiaceae family by HPLC and spectrophotometry method

The aim of the current study was to analyze the stability of rosmarinic acid in ethanolic tinctures of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.), oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), peppermint (Mentha x piperita), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.), sage (Salvia officinalis L.), and thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.). High-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection (HPLC–DAD) was employed to monitor the concentration of the marker compound over a six month period. Furthermore, the tinctures were also evaluated for caffeic acid, total phenolic content, and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity. We observed that the concentration of rosmarinic acid in tincture stored in closed amber glasses at ambient temperature decreased significantly during 6-month storage. Furthermore, our study squarely confirms the fact that a part of rosmarinic acid is converted to caffeic acid. The tested tinctures can be listed in the following order according to the greatest stability of the marker compound: rosemary > peppermint > oregano > lemon balm > thyme > sage. The results of the study indicated a linear relationship between DPPH values and total phenolic (R2 = 0.92) or rosmarinic acid (R2 = 0.85) contents.

Rosmarinic Acid and Ulvan from Terrestrial and Marine Sources in Anti-Microbial Bionanosystems and Biomaterials

In order to increase their sustainability, antimicrobial renewable molecules are fundamental additions to consumer goods. Rosmarinic acid is extracted from several terrestrial plants and represents an effective anti-microbial agent. Ulvan, extracted from algae, is an anti-microbial polysaccharide. The present review is dedicated to discussing the sources and the extraction methodologies for obtaining rosmarinic acid and ulvan. Moreover, the preparation of bioanosystems, integrating the two molecules with organic or inorganic substrates, are reviewed as methodologies to increase their effectiveness and stability. Finally, the possibility of preparing functional biomaterials and anti-microbial final products is discussed, considering scientific literature. The performed analysis indicated that the production of both molecules is not yet performed with mature industrial technologies. Nevertheless, both molecules could potentially be used in the packaging, biomedical, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, sanitary and personal care sectors, despite some research being required for developing functional materials with specific properties to pave the way for many more applications.

Edible Flowers: Antioxidant Compounds and Their Functional Properties

Edible flowers have been widely consumed for ages until now. The attractive colors and shapes, exotic aroma, and delightful taste make edible flowers very easy to attain. Moreover, they also provide health benefits for consumers due to the unique composition and concentration of antioxidant compounds in the matrices. Knowing the bioactive compounds and their functional properties from edible flowers is necessary to diversify the usage and reach broader consumers. Therefore, this reported review could be useful for functional product development, engaging the discussed edible flowers. We present a comprehensive review of edible flower composition and the functional properties of their antioxidant compounds, mainly phenolics.

Phytochemical profile and rosmarinic acid purification from two Peruvian Lepechinia Willd. species (Salviinae, Mentheae, Lamiaceae)

The phytochemical profile of Lepechinia meyenii (Walp.) Epling and Lepechina floribunda (Benth.) Epling obtained by liquid chromatography associated with high-resolution mass spectrometry is presented. Forty eight compounds were detected exhibiting a variety of salvianolic acids and abietane phenolic diterpenoids. A simple procedure by cold evaporative crystallization to purify rosmarinic acid from these botanical species was also shown.

Nose-to-Brain Delivery of Antioxidants as a Potential Tool for the Therapy of Neurological Diseases

Oxidative stress has a key role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's diseases and can be an important cause of the damages in cerebral ischemia. Oxidative stress arises from high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Consequently, on this rational base, antioxidants (many of natural origin) are proposed as potential drugs to prevent ROS noxious actions because they can protect the target tissues from the oxidative stress. However, the potential of antioxidants is limited, owing to the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which is difficult to cross with a consequent low bioavailability of the drug into the brain after systemic (intravenous, intraperitoneal, oral) administrations. One strategy to improve the delivery of antioxidants to the brain involves the use of the so-called nose-to-brain route, with the administration of the antioxidant in specific nasal formulations and its passage to the central nervous system (CNS) mainly through the olfactory nerve way. In the current literature, many examples show encouraging results in studies carried out in cell cultures and in animal models about the potential neuroprotective effects of antioxidants when administered through the nose. This review concerns the nose-to-brain route for the brain targeting of antioxidants as a potential tool for the therapy of neurological diseases.

Chitosan-coated rosmarinic acid nanoemulsion nasal administration protects against LPS-induced memory deficit, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress in Wistar rats

Rosmarinic acid (RA) lipid-nanotechnology-based delivery systems associate with mucoadhesive biopolymers for nasal administration has arisen as a new promising neuroprotective therapy for neurodegenerative disorders (ND). We have previously demonstrated the glioprotective effect of chitosan-coated RA nanoemulsions (RA CNE) against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced damage in rat astrocyte primary culture. Here, we further investigate the protective effect of RA CNE nasal administration on LPS-induced memory deficit, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress in Wistar rats, since these in vivo studies were crucial to understand the impact of developed delivery systems in the RA neuroprotective effects. The animals were treated through nasal route with RA CNE (2 mg·mL-1), free RA (2 mg·mL-1), blank CNE, and saline (control and LPS groups) administrations (n.a., 100 μL per nostril) twice a day (7 a.m./7 p.m.) for six days. On the sixth day, the animals received the last treatments and LPS was intraperitoneally (i.p.) administrated (250 μg·kg-1). Overall results, proved for the first time that the RA CNE nasal administration elicits a neuroprotective effect against LPS-induced damage, which was associated with increased 1.6 times recognition index, decreased 5.0 and 1.9 times in GFAP+ cell count and CD11b expression, respectively, as well as increased 1.7 times SH in cerebellum and decreased 3.9 times TBARS levels in cerebral cortex in comparison with LPS group. RA CNE treatment also facilitates RA bioavailability in the brain, confirmed by RA quantification. Free RA also demonstrates a protective effect in some studied parameters, although no RA was quantified in the brain.

Novel Perspective on Alzheimer's Disease Treatment: Rosmarinic Acid Molecular Interplay with Copper(II) and Amyloid β

Alzheimer's disease is a severe disorder that affects millions of people worldwide. It is a very debilitating disease with no cure at the moment. The necessity of finding an effective treatment is very demanding, and the entire scientific community is putting in a lot of effort to address this issue. The major hallmark of Alzheimer's disease is the presence of toxic aggregated species in the brain, impaired metal homeostasis, and high levels of oxidative stress. Rosmarinic acid is a well-known potent antioxidant molecule, the efficacy of which has been proved both in vitro and in vivo. In this study, we investigated the possible role played by rosmarinic acid as a mediator of the copper(II)-induced neurotoxicity. Several spectroscopic techniques and biological assays were applied to characterize the metal complexes and to evaluate the cytotoxicity and the mutagenicity of rosmarinic acid and its Cu(II) complex. Our data indicate that rosmarinic acid is able to interfere with the interaction between amyloid β and Cu(II) by forming an original ternary association.

Nanotechnological interventions for plant health improvement and sustainable agriculture

Agriculture is the source of food for both humans and animals. With the growing population demands, agricultural production needs to be scaled up where nanotechnology can play a significant role. The use of nanotechnology in agriculture can manage plant disease and growth for better and quality output. Therefore, this review focuses on the use of various nanoparticles for detection of nutrients and contaminants, nanosensors for monitoring the environmental stresses and crop conditions as well as the use of nanotechnology for plant pathogen detection and crop protection. In addition, the delivery of plant growth regulators and agrichemicals like nanopesticides and nanofertilizers to the plants along with the delivery of DNA for targeted genetic engineering and production of genetically modified (GM) crops are discussed briefly. Further, the future concerns regarding the use of nanoparticles and their possible toxicity, impact on the agriculture and ecosystem needs to be assessed along with the assessment of the nanoparticles and GM crops on the environment and human health.

Glioprotective Effect of Chitosan-Coated Rosmarinic Acid Nanoemulsions Against Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Rat Astrocyte Primary Cultures

Rosmarinic acid (RA) is a natural polyphenolic compound with a well-documented neuroprotective effect mainly associated with its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Recently, our research group developed and optimized chitosan-coated RA nanoemulsions (RA CNE) intended to be used for nasal delivery as a new potential neuroprotective therapy. In this sense, the present study aimed to evaluate the protective and/or therapeutic potential of RA CNE in inflammation/oxidative stress induced by LPS (1 μg mL-1) in rat astrocyte primary cultures. In summary, pre-treatment with RA CNE before exposure to LPS (protective protocol) reduced significantly the LPS-induced alterations in astrocyte cell viability, proliferation, and cell death by necrosis, which was not observed in therapeutic protocol. RA CNE protective protocol also enhanced anti-oxidative status by ~ 50% by decreasing oxygen reactive species production and nitric oxide levels and preventing total thiol content decrease. Finally, our results demonstrate the protective effect of RA CNE in migratory activation and GFAP expression of reactive astrocytes. Overall, our findings indicate for the first time the RA CNE glioprotective potential, associated with an increase in cell viability and proliferation, a preventive effect on cellular death by necrosis, migratory ability and hypertrophic reactive astrocytes, and the reparation of astrocyte redox state.

Characterization of polymeric phenolic acids and flavonoids in Clerodendranthi Spicati Herba using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry with target and nontarget data mining strategy

RATIONALE

Clerodendranthi Spicati Herba (CSH) is often used to treat urinary stones, urinary tract infections and nephritis in China. Much literature has reported that polymeric phenolic acids and flavonoids are the major bioactive components in CSH. Therefore, it is very meaningful to identify the polymeric phenolic acids and flavonoids in CSH.

METHODS

Ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC/QTOF-MS/MS) analysis with target and nontarget data mining strategy was proposed to rapidly profile the polymeric phenolic acids and flavonoids in CSH. Diagnostic product ions and neutral loss filter were beneficial for identifying the polymeric phenolic acids and flavonoids from complex compounds in CSH.

RESULTS

A total of 118 compounds, including 85 polymeric phenolic acids and 33 flavonoids, were reasonably identified in CSH by comparing their main fragmentation pathways with literature data, and 85 of them were discovered in CSH firstly by nontarget analysis. Nine potential compounds were characterized tentatively as new pentameric and hexameric phenolic acids in CSH. Six types of polymeric phenolic acids (monomer, dimer, trimer, tetramer, pentamer and hexamer) and four types of flavonoids (apigenin, kaempferol, luteolin and quercetin) were identified in CSH.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicated that the UHPLC/QTOF-MS/MS method coupled with target and nontarget data mining strategy was feasible and rational for identifying the polymeric phenolic acids and flavonoids in complex chemical constituents of CSH. The findings will be conducive to the discovery of the active ingredients of CSH and the establishment of quality standards.

Rosmarinic acid improves oxidative stress parameters and mitochondrial respiratory chain activity following 4-aminopyridine and picrotoxin-induced seizure in mice

Studies have indicated that epilepsy, an important neurological disease, can generate oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, among other damages to the brain. In this context, the use of antioxidant compounds could provide neuroprotection and help to reduce the damage caused by epileptic seizures and thereby the use of anticonvulsant drugs. Rosmarinic acid (RA) is an ester of caffeic acid and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylactic acid that prevents cell damage caused by free radicals, acting as an antioxidant. It also presents anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, and antiapoptotic properties. In this work, we used two models of acute seizure, 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) and picrotoxin (PTX)-induced seizures in mice, to investigate the anticonvulsant, antioxidant, and neuroprotective profile of RA. Diazepam and valproic acid, antiepileptic drugs already used in the treatment of epilepsy, were used as positive controls. Although RA could not prevent seizures in the models used in this study, neither enhance the latency time to first seizure at the tested doses, it exhibited an antioxidant and neuroprotective effect. RA (8 and 16 mg/kg) decreased reactive oxygen species production, superoxide dismutase activity, and DNA damage, measured in hippocampus, after seizures induced by PTX and 4-AP. Catalase activity was decreased by RA only after seizures induced by 4-AP. The activity of the mitochondrial complex II was increased by RA in hippocampus samples after both seizure models. The results obtained in this study suggest that RA is able to reduce cell damage generated by the 4-AP and PTX seizures and therefore could represent a potential candidate in reducing pathophysiological processes involved in epilepsy.

Compatibility study of rosmarinic acid with excipients used in pharmaceutical solid dosage forms using thermal and non-thermal techniques

Rosmarinic acid (RA) is a phenolic compound that presents well-documented anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antitumor activities, and based on its pharmacological potential and poor bioavailability, several solid dosage forms have been developed to RA delivery. Therefore, in literature, there are no reports about RA compatibility with excipients. In this regard, the aim of the present study was to evaluate, for the first time, the compatibility of RA with excipients commonly used in solid dosage forms at a 1:1 (RA:excipient) ratio using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetry (TG), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR), and isothermal stress testing (IST) coupled with liquid chromatography (LC). The excipients selected were hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), lactose monohydrate (LAC), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), talc (TALC), croscarmellose sodium (CCS), and magnesium stearate (MgSTE). According to DSC results, physical interactions were found between RA and HPMC, LAC, CCS, and MgSTE. The TG analyses confirmed the physical interactions and suggested chemical incompatibility. FTIR revealed physical interaction of RA with TALC and MgSTE and the ssNMR confirmed the physical interaction showed by FTIR and excluded the presence of chemical incompatibility. By IST, the greatest loss of RA content was found to CCS and MgSTE (>15%), demonstrating chemical incompatibilities with RA. High temperatures used in DSC and TG analyses could be responsible for incompatibilities in binary mixtures (BMs) with HPMC and LAC, while temperature above 25 °C and presence of water were factors that promote incompatibilities in BMs with CCS and MgSTE. Overall results demonstrate that RA was compatible with MCC and PVP.

Development, physico-chemical characterization and in-vitro studies of hydrogels containing rosmarinic acid-loaded nanoemulsion for topical application

OBJECTIVES

Natural sources with antioxidant activity, such as rosmarinic acid (RA), have been considered as an interesting approach for the development of new anti-ageing skin products. In this context, this study aimed to develop hydrogels containing RA-loaded nanoemulsions and evaluate the effect of the addition of Tween® 80 (a nonionic cosurfactant) in formulations intended to be used for topical application.

METHODS

Physico-chemical characterization, in-vitro release and skin retention/permeation from hydrogels of RA-loaded nanoemulsions (containing or not Tween® 80) were evaluated. The RA-loaded nanoemulsion safety profiles were also investigated in keratinocytes (HaCaT cells).

KEY FINDINGS

It was observed that all formulations presented adequate physico-chemical characterization for topical application. Furthermore, the results also demonstrated that the presence of Tween® 80 decreased the droplet size and polydispersity index of nanoemulsions and hydrogels. An extended RA release was noted for the hydrogels. However, when comparing the hydrogels, a positive effect of the presence of Tween® 80 on RA retention/permeation in total skin was seen. The RA-loaded nanoemulsion safety profiles demonstrated a good tolerability (3.125-100 μm) in HaCaT cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The overall results demonstrated that the formulations developed in this study can be considered as a suitable carrier for RA in a topical application targeting new anti-ageing skin care products.

Activation of anti-oxidant of curcumin pyrazole derivatives through preservation of mitochondria function and Nrf2 signaling pathway

Oxidative stress is an important cause of neurodegenerative diseases. Antioxidant is an potential important method to treat such diseases. The aim of this study is to discover new and effective antioxidants and their mechanism. The neuroprotective effect of six curcumin pyrozole compounds were first evaluated on sodium nitroprusside (SNP) - induced PC12 cell injury by testing cell viability and LDH release. The results showed that four compounds (C1-C4) have more significant protective effects compared to curcumin and edaravone. Furthermore, compounds C1-C4 can attenuate the intracellular ROS, and compound C3 is the most effective one which can preservate the mitochondria function by inhibiting the mitochondrial membrane potential loss and enhance nuclear translocation of Nrf2 in PC12 cell. These results indicated that C3 may be a potential candidate drug for treating neurodegenerative diseases.