Behavioral tests predicting striatal dopamine level in a rat hemi-Parkinson's disease model

Microglia modulate sleep/wakefulness under baseline conditions and under acute social defeat stress in adult mice

Although sleep is tightly regulated by multiple neuronal circuits in the brain, nonneuronal cells such as glial cells have been increasingly recognized as crucial sleep regulators. Recent studies have shown that microglia may act to maintain wakefulness. Here, we investigated the possible involvement of microglia in the regulation of sleep quantity and quality under baseline and stress conditions through electroencephalography (EEG)/electromyography (EMG) recordings, and by employing pharmacological methods to eliminate microglial cells in the adult mouse brain. We found that severe microglial depletion induced by the colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) antagonist PLX5622 (PLX) reversibly decreased the total wake time and the wake episode duration and increased the EEG slow-wave power during wakefulness under baseline conditions. To examine the role of microglia in sleep/wake regulation under mental stress, we used the acute social defeat stress (ASDS) paradigm, an ethological model for psychosocial stress. Sleep analysis under ASDS revealed that microglial depletion exacerbated the stress-induced decrease in the total wake time and increase in anxiety-like behaviors in the open field test. These results demonstrate that microglia actively modulate sleep quantity and architecture under both baseline and stress conditions. Our findings suggest that microglia may potentially provide resilience against acute psychosocial stress by regulating restorative sleep.

Nanoscale Magneto-mechanical-genetics of Deep Brain Neurons Reversing Motor Deficits in Parkinsonian Mice

Here, we introduce the magneto-mechanical-genetic (MMG)-driven wireless deep brain stimulation (DBS) using magnetic nanostructures for therapeutic benefits in the mouse model of Parkinson's disease (PD). Electrical DBS of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) is an effective therapy for mitigating Parkinson's motor symptoms. However, its broader application is hampered by the requirement for implanted electrodes and the lack of anatomical and cellular specificity. Using the nanoscale magnetic force actuators (m-Torquer), which deliver torque force under rotating magnetic fields to activate pre-encoded Piezo1 ion channels on target neurons, our system enables wireless and STN-specific DBS without implants, addressing key unmet challenges in the DBS field. In both late- and early-stage PD mice, MMG-DBS significantly improved locomotor activity and motor balance by 2-fold compared to untreated PD mice. Moreover, MMG-DBS enabled sustained therapeutic effects. This approach provides a non-invasive and implant-free DBS with cellular targeting capability for the effective treatment of Parkinsonian symptoms.

Harnessing the neuroprotective effect of oral administration of benfotiamine in MPTP induced Parkinson's disease in rats

The study was performed to evaluate the neuroprotective effects of Benfotiamine (BFT) in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced Parkinson's disease (PD) in rats. The rats were given daily doses of BFT (100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg) through oral administration for 42 days. The rats were given a single bilateral dosage of MPTP (0.1 mg/nostril) intranasally once before the drug treatment to induce PD. On day 42, the animals were subjected to various behavioral paradigms. Post-treatment with BFT for 42 days significantly improved the motor and nonmotor fluctuations of MPTP. The results demonstrated that treatment with BFT ameliorated MPTP-induced disorders in behavior, body balance, and dopamine levels in the mid-brain. Among the post-treated groups, a high dose of BFT was the most effective treatment. Mean values are indicated in ±SEM, n = 5***(p < 0.001) when compared with the vehicle control, n = 5 ### (p < 0.001) when compared with the disease control; (p < 0.001) when compared with the BFT per se; (p < 0.001) when compared with the low dose of BFT; (p < 0.001) when compared with the high dose of BFT. Our finding suggests that BFT contributed to superior antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory and could be a novel therapeutic method for PD management. In conclusion, BFT could be a potential drug candidate for curbing and preventing PD.

Dipeptide mimetic of BDNF ameliorates motor dysfunction and striatal apoptosis in 6-OHDA-induced Parkinson's rat model: Considering Akt and MAPKs signaling

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive and debilitating neurodegenerative disorder associated with motor and non-motor complaints. Dysregulation of neurotrophic factors and related signaling cascades have been reported to be common events in PD which is accompanied by dopaminergic (DA) neuron demise. However, the restoration of neurotrophic factors has several limitations. Bis-(N-monosuccinyl-L-methionyl-L-serine) heptamethylenediamide (BHME) is a dipeptide mimetic of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) with reported anti-oxidant and neuroprotective effects in several experimental models. The current study has investigated the effect of BHME on 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-caused motor anomalies in Wistar rats. In this regard, rats were treated daily with BHME (0.1 or 1 mg/kg) 1 h after 6-OHDA-caused damage until the twelfth day. Afterwards, motor behavior and DA neuron survival were evaluated via behavioral tests and immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining, respectively. Moreover, the activity of Akt, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) family, and Bax/Bcl-2 ratio were evaluated by Western blotting. Our results indicated that BHME prevents motor dysfunction and DA cell death following 6-OHDA injection, and this improvement was in parallel with an enhancement in Akt activity, decrement of P38 phosphorylation, along with a reduction in Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. In conclusion, our findings indicated that BHME, as a mimetic of BDNF, can be considered for further research and is a promising therapeutic agent for PD therapy.

Intermittent Theta Burst Stimulation Improves Motor and Behavioral Dysfunction through Modulation of NMDA Receptor Subunit Composition in Experimental Model of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive degeneration of the dopaminergic system, leading to a variety of motor and nonmotor symptoms. The currently available symptomatic therapy loses efficacy over time, indicating the need for new therapeutic approaches. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) has emerged as one of the potential candidates for PD therapy. Intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS), an excitatory protocol of rTMS, has been shown to be beneficial in several animal models of neurodegeneration, including PD. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of prolonged iTBS on motor performance and behavior and the possible association with changes in the NMDAR subunit composition in the 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced experimental model of PD. Two-month-old male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: controls, 6-OHDA rats, 6-OHDA + iTBS protocol (two times/day/three weeks) and the sham group. The therapeutic effect of iTBS was evaluated by examining motor coordination, balance, spontaneous forelimb use, exploratory behavior, anxiety-like, depressive/anhedonic-like behavior and short-term memory, histopathological changes and changes at the molecular level. We demonstrated the positive effects of iTBS at both motor and behavioral levels. In addition, the beneficial effects were reflected in reduced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons and a subsequent increase in the level of DA in the caudoputamen. Finally, iTBS altered protein expression and NMDAR subunit composition, suggesting a sustained effect. Applied early in the disease course, the iTBS protocol may be a promising candidate for early-stage PD therapy, affecting motor and nonmotor deficits.

Neuroprotective and Immunomodulatory Effects of Probiotics in a Rat Model of Parkinson's Disease

It is now well recognized that a bidirectional relationship between gut microbiota and the brain, referred to as the gut-brain axis, plays a prominent role in maintaining homeostasis and that a disruption in this axis can result in neuroinflammatory response and neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease (PD). The protective action of probiotics such as Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis Bb12 and Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG in various animal models of PD has been reported. Therefore, in this study, we used an inflammatory model of PD to assess the effects of a combination of these two probiotics (Microbiot^®) on motor behavior as well as on the response of microglia, including microglia morphology, to gain a better understanding of their mechanism of action. Microbiot^® (300 µL) was administered orally once daily for 15 days in a lipopolysaccharide-induced PD model using male Wistar rats. Although LPS-induced motor asymmetry in cylinder test was not affected by Microbiot^®, impairment of motor coordination in the narrow-beam test was significantly reduced by this probiotic. Moreover, Microbiot^® treatment reduced microglial activation suggesting an anti-inflammatory effect. While further mechanistic investigation of Microbiot^® in neurodegenerative diseases is warranted, our results support the potential utility of probiotics in PD.

Combined metabolic activators improve metabolic functions in the animal models of neurodegenerative diseases

BACKGROUND

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), are associated with metabolic abnormalities. Integrative analysis of human clinical data and animal studies have contributed to a better understanding of the molecular and cellular pathways involved in the progression of NDDs. Previously, we have reported that the combined metabolic activators (CMA), which include the precursors of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and glutathione can be utilized to alleviate metabolic disorders by activating mitochondrial metabolism.

METHODS

We first analysed the brain transcriptomics data from AD patients and controls using a brain-specific genome-scale metabolic model (GEM). Then, we investigated the effect of CMA administration in animal models of AD and PD. We evaluated pathological and immunohistochemical findings of brain and liver tissues. Moreover, PD rats were tested for locomotor activity and apomorphine-induced rotation.

FINDINGS

Analysis of transcriptomics data with GEM revealed that mitochondrial dysfunction is involved in the underlying molecular pathways of AD. In animal models of AD and PD, we showed significant damage in the high-fat diet groups' brain and liver tissues compared to the chow diet. The histological analyses revealed that hyperemia, degeneration and necrosis in neurons were improved by CMA administration in both AD and PD animal models. These findings were supported by immunohistochemical evidence of decreased immunoreactivity in neurons. In parallel to the improvement in the brain, we also observed dramatic metabolic improvement in the liver tissue. CMA administration also showed a beneficial effect on behavioural functions in PD rats.

INTERPRETATION

Overall, we showed that CMA administration significantly improved behavioural scores in parallel with the neurohistological outcomes in the AD and PD animal models and is a promising treatment for improving the metabolic parameters and brain functions in NDDs.

DDC-Promoter-Driven Chemogenetic Activation of SNpc Dopaminergic Neurons Alleviates Parkinsonian Motor Symptoms

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with typical motor symptoms. Recent studies have suggested that excessive GABA from reactive astrocytes tonically inhibits dopaminergic neurons and reduces the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the key dopamine-synthesizing enzyme, in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). However, the expression of DOPA decarboxylase (DDC), another dopamine-synthesizing enzyme, is relatively spared, raising a possibility that the live but non-functional TH-negative/DDC-positive neurons could be the therapeutic target for rescuing PD motor symptoms. However, due to the absence of a validated DDC-specific promoter, manipulating DDC-positive neuronal activity has not been tested as a therapeutic strategy for PD. Here, we developed an AAV vector expressing mCherry under rat DDC promoter (AAV-rDDC-mCherry) and validated the specificity in the rat SNpc. Modifying this vector, we expressed hM3Dq (Gq-DREADD) under DDC promoter in the SNpc and ex vivo electrophysiologically validated the functionality. In the A53T-mutated alpha-synuclein overexpression model of PD, the chemogenetic activation of DDC-positive neurons in the SNpc significantly alleviated the parkinsonian motor symptoms and rescued the nigrostriatal TH expression. Altogether, our DDC-promoter will allow dopaminergic neuron-specific gene delivery in rodents. Furthermore, we propose that the activation of dormant dopaminergic neurons could be a potential therapeutic strategy for PD.

Chloride Intracellular Channel Protein 2 Promotes Microglial Invasion: A Link to Microgliosis in the Parkinson's Disease Brain

Activated microglia potentially cause neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD). Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of PD, but the modulator of microglial release of MMP-9 remains obscure. Given the modulatory effect of chloride intracellular channel protein 2 (CLIC2) on MMPs, we aimed to determine the role of CLIC2 in regulating microglial MMP expression and activation. We found that CLIC2 is expressed in microglia and neurons in rat brain tissue and focused on the function of CLIC2 in primary cultured microglia. Exposure to recombinant CLIC2 protein enhanced microglial invasion activity, and its knockdown abolished this activity. Moreover, increased activation of MMP-9 was confirmed by the addition of the CLIC2 protein, and CLIC2 knockdown eliminated this activation. Additionally, increased expression of CLIC2 was observed in PD-modeled tissue. In conclusion, CLIC2 increases MMP-9 activity in the microglia, which are involved in PD pathogenesis.

Time-dependent alterations in the rat nigrostriatal system after intrastriatal injection of fibrils formed by α–Syn and tau fragments

Introduction

Accurate demonstration of phosphorylated α-synuclein aggregation and propagation, progressive nigrostriatal degeneration and motor deficits will help further research on elucidating the mechanisms of Parkinson’s Disease. α-synucleinN103 and tauN368, cleaved by activated asparagine endopeptidase in Parkinson’s Disease, robustly interacted with each other and triggered endogenous α-synuclein accumulation in a strong manner. However, the detailed pathophysiological process caused by the complex remains to be established.

Methods

In this study, rats were unilaterally inoculated with 15 or 30 μg of this complex or vehicle (phosphate buffered saline, PBS). Over a 6-month period post injection, we then investigated the abundance of pSyn inclusions, nigrostriatal degeneration, and changes in axonal transport proteins to identify the various dynamic pathological changes caused by pSyn aggregates in the nigrostriatal system.

Results

As expected, rats displayed a dose-dependent increase in the amount of α-synuclein inclusions, and progressive dopaminergic neurodegeneration was observed throughout the study, reaching 30% at 6 months post injection. Impairments in anterograde axonal transport, followed by retrograde transport, were observed prior to neuron death, which was first discovered in the PFFs model.

Discussion

The current results demonstrate the value of a novel rat model of Parkinson’s disease characterized by widespread, “seed”-initiated endogenous α-Syn pathology, impaired axonal transport, and a neurodegenerative cascade in the nigrostriatal system. Notably, the present study is the first to examine alterations in axonal transport proteins in a PFF model, providing an appropriate foundation for future research regarding the mechanisms leading to subsequent neurodegeneration. As this model recapitulates some essential features of Parkinson’s disease, it provides an important platform for further research on specific pathogenic mechanisms and pre-clinical evaluations of novel therapeutic strategies.

Rearing in an Enriched Environment Ameliorates the ADHD-like Behaviors of Lister Hooded Rats While Suppressing Neuronal Activities in the Medial Prefrontal Cortex

In addition to genetic factors, environmental factors play a role in the pathogenesis of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study used Lister hooded rats (LHRs) as ADHD model animals to evaluate the effects of environmental factors. Male LHR pups were kept in four rearing conditions from postnatal day 23 (4 rats in a standard cage; 12 rats in a large flat cage; and 4 or 12 rats in an enriched environment [EE]) until 9 weeks of age. EE rearing but not rearing in a large flat cage decreased the activity of LHRs in the open field test that was conducted for 7 consecutive days. In the drop test, most rats reared in an EE remained on a disk at a height, whereas most rats reared in a standard cage fell off. RNA sequencing revealed that the immediate-early gene expression in the medial prefrontal cortex of LHRs reared in an EE was reduced. cFos-expressing neurons were reduced in number in LHRs reared in an EE. These results suggest that growing in an EE improves ADHD-like behaviors and that said improvement is due to the suppression of neuronal activity in the mPFC.

Combining CRISPR-Cas9 and brain imaging to study the link from genes to molecules to networks

Receptors, transporters, and ion channels are important targets for therapy development in neurological diseases, but their mechanistic role in pathogenesis is often poorly understood. Gene editing and in vivo imaging approaches will help to identify the molecular and functional role of these targets and the consequence of their regional dysfunction on the whole-brain level. We combine CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing with in vivo positron emission tomography (PET) and functional MRI (fMRI) to investigate the direct link between genes, molecules, and the brain connectome. The extensive knowledge of the Slc18a2 gene encoding the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT2), involved in the storage and release of dopamine, makes it an excellent target for studying the gene network relationships while structurally preserving neuronal integrity and function. We edited the Slc18a2 in the substantia nigra pars compacta of adult rats and used in vivo molecular imaging besides behavioral, histological, and biochemical assessments to characterize the CRISPR-Cas9-mediated VMAT2 knockdown. Simultaneous PET/fMRI was performed to investigate molecular and functional brain alterations. We found that stage-specific adaptations of brain functional connectivity follow the selective impairment of presynaptic dopamine storage and release. Our study reveals that recruiting different brain networks is an early response to the dopaminergic dysfunction preceding neuronal cell loss. Our combinatorial approach is a tool to investigate the impact of specific genes on brain molecular and functional dynamics, which will help to develop tailored therapies for normalizing brain function.

The modulatory effect of 100 Hz electroacupuncture on striatal synaptic plasticity in unilateral lesioned 6-OHDA rats

Recent studied have reported that impaired striatal synaptic plasticity played a crucial role in Parkinson's disease (PD). Previous studies have suggested that electroacupuncture (EA) alleviated the motor deficits in PD patients and animal models. However, the mechanisms underlying this protection need to be further elucidated. In this study, we found that EA-induced improvement of motor deficits in the 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) rat model doesn't act through dopaminergic system. EA rescued the decreased striatal long-term potentiation (LTP) in 6-OHDA rats. In addition, the declined expression of N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor subunit 2B (NR2B) in the striatum was remarkably up-regulated by EA. The EA-induced improvement of LTP can be eliminated by NR2B-selective inhibitor. It is indicated that EA-induced recovery of striatal LTP was correlated with the up-regulation of NR2B subunit. EA was also found to rescue the decreased dendritic arborization and the spine density in the striatum of 6-OHDA rats. Meanwhile, EA suppressed striatal glutamate content and vesicular glutamate transporter 1 which is expressed in cortico-striatal glutamatergic projections. The decrease of striatal glutamate content induced by decortication, EA treatment or a combination of both reversed the loss of striatal spine density in 6-OHDA rats. It is indicated that EA-induced reduction of cortico-striatal glutamate transmission contributes to the recovery of striatal spine density. In conclusion, the therapeutic effect of EA on the motor deficits of 6-OHDA rats was mediated by rescuing cortico-striatal glutamate transmission and striatal synaptic plasticity.

Prolongation of absence seizures and changes in serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission by nigrostriatal pathway degeneration in genetic absence epilepsy rats

OBJECTIVE

Basal ganglia structures play an important role in the pathophysiology of absence epilepsy, known as remote control of absence seizures. We examined the role of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway in absence epilepsy through behavioral and electroencephalography (EEG) parameters, immunohistochemical, and biochemical characteristics of dopamine and serotonin in the genetic absence epilepsy rat model.

METHODS

The nigrostriatal pathway was degenerated by the injection of chemical 6-hydroxydopamine hydrobromide (6-OHDA) into the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) in Wistar and genetic absence epilepsy rats from Strasbourg (GAERS). On the 21st day after stereotaxic surgery, spike-and-wave discharges (SWDs) on EEG were recorded in GAERS groups. Thereafter, Wistar-Control, GAERS-Control, Wistar-6OHDA, GAERS-6OHDA rats were subjected to the cylinder and apomorphine-induced rotation tests. Dopaminergic or serotonergic immunoreactivity was examined in the cortex, striatum, and substantia nigra pars compacta. High-performance liquid chromatography method was used for biochemical analysis of dopamine and serotonin in the cortex and thalamus.

RESULTS

In behavioral analysis, the number of rotations in the GAERS-6OHDA group was significantly higher than in Wistar-6OHDA rats. The degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway produced a significant increase in the cumulative duration of SWDs and the duration of each SWD in GAERS-6OHDA rats. GAERS-Control rats displayed significantly higher cortical and striatal serotonin immunoreactivity and cortical serotonin level compared to Wistar-Control animals. Moreover, cortical and striatal serotonin immunoreactivity and cortical serotonin levels increased in Wistar-6OHDA and GAERS-6OHDA groups compared to their control groups.

SIGNIFICANCE

The effect of 6-OHDA-induced MFB lesion on absence epilepsy was examined for the first time by comparing Wistar and GAERS rats. The nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway as a part of the remote-control system is likely to participate in the seizure network.

Inhibition of vascular adhesion protein 1 protects dopamine neurons from the effects of acute inflammation and restores habit learning in the striatum

Background

Changes in dopaminergic neural function can be induced by an acute inflammatory state that, by altering the integrity of the neurovasculature, induces neuronal stress, cell death and causes functional deficits. Effectively blocking these effects of inflammation could, therefore, reduce both neuronal and functional decline. To test this hypothesis, we inhibited vascular adhesion protein 1 (VAP-1), a membrane-bound protein expressed on the endothelial cell surface, that mediates leukocyte extravasation and induces oxidative stress.

Method

We induced dopaminergic neuronal loss by infusing lipopolysaccharide (LPS) directly into the substantia nigra (SN) in rats and administered the VAP-1 inhibitor, PXS-4681A, daily.

Results

LPS produced: an acute inflammatory response, the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the SN, reduced the dopaminergic projection to SN target regions, particularly the dorsolateral striatum (DLS), and a deficit in habit learning, a key function of the DLS. In an attempt to protect SN neurons from this inflammatory response we found that VAP-1 inhibition not only reduced neutrophil infiltration in the SN and striatum, but also reduced the associated striatal microglia and astrocyte response. We found VAP-1 inhibition protected dopamine neurons in the SN, their projections to the striatum and promoted the functional recovery of habit learning. Thus, we reversed the loss of habitual actions, a function usually dependent on dopamine release in DLS and sensitive to striatal dysfunction.

Conclusions

We establish, therefore, that VAP-1 inhibition has an anti-inflammatory profile that may be beneficial in the treatment of dopamine neuron dysfunction caused by an acute inflammatory state in the brain.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-021-02288-8.

Exercise increases striatal Glu reuptake and improves motor dysfunction in 6-OHDA-induced Parkinson's disease rats

The purpose of this study is to clarify that exercise may improve the motor dysfunction of Parkinson's disease (PD) model rats by increasing the reuptake of glutamate (Glu) in the striatum. The neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) was injected into the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) of the rats' right brain to establish PD model rats with unilateral injury, and the sham operation group was given the same dose of normal saline at the same site as the control group. The reliability of the model was evaluated by apomorphine (APO)-induced rotation test combined with tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunohistochemical staining in the substantia nigra and striatum. The exercise group started treadmill training intervention (11 m/min, 30 min/day, 5d/week, and 4 weeks in total) 1 week after the operation. The balance bar test, suspension test, and the tail-lifting handstand test were used to evaluate exercise performance of rats; RT-PCR and western blotting were used to detect protein and mRNA expression of glutamate transporter-1 (GLT-1) and glutamine synthetase (GS) in the striatum; and isotope labeling was used to detect the ability of Glu reuptake in the striatum. (1) Compared with PD group, the number of TH immunoreactive cells in the substantia nigra and the content of TH immunoreactive fibers in the striatum did not change significantly in PD + Ex group. (2) Compared with PD group, the latency and total time of crossing the balance beam were significantly shorter (P < 0.01), the retention time of two forepaws on the metal wire was significantly longer (P < 0.01), the maximum lifting of head and trunk was significantly increased (P < 0.01) in PD + Ex group. (3) Compared with PD group, the ability of Glu reuptake in the striatum was significantly increased (P < 0.05), the expression levels of GLT-1 and GS mRNA in the striatum were significantly increased (P < 0.05), the protein expression of GLT-1 and GS in the striatum was significantly upregulated (P < 0.05) in PD + Ex group. Exercise intervention can significantly improve the motor dysfunction of PD model rats, increase the ability of striatal Glu reuptake significantly, and upregulate the expression levels of GLT-1 and GS protein and GS mRNA significantly. Exercise intervention may increase the protein expression level of GLT-1 and increase the reuptake ability of Glu in the striatum, thereby reducing the excitotoxic effect of excessive Glu on the postsynaptic membrane, and ultimately alleviate the motor dysfunction in PD model rats.

KDS2010, a Newly Developed Reversible MAO-B Inhibitor, as an Effective Therapeutic Candidate for Parkinson's Disease

Monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B) is a well-established therapeutic target for Parkinson's disease (PD); however, previous clinical studies on currently available irreversible MAO-B inhibitors have yielded disappointing neuroprotective effects. Here, we tested the therapeutic potential of KDS2010, a recently synthesized potent, selective, and reversible MAO-B inhibitor in multiple animal models of PD. We designed and synthesized a series of α-aminoamide derivatives and found that derivative KDS2010 exhibited the highest potency, specificity, reversibility, and bioavailability (> 100%). In addition, KDS2010 demonstrated significant neuroprotective and anti-neuroinflammatory efficacy against nigrostriatal pathway destruction in the mouse MPTP model of parkinsonism. Treatment with KDS2010 also alleviated parkinsonian motor dysfunction in 6-hydroxydopamine-induced and A53T mutant α-synuclein overexpression rat models of PD. Moreover, KDS2010 showed virtually no toxicity or side effects in non-human primates. KDS2010 could be a next-generation therapeutic candidate for PD.

Derma roller mediated transdermal delivery of tizanidine invasomes for the management of skeletal muscle spasms

Tizanidine hydrochloride (TIZ) is a skeletal muscle relaxant used to treat spasms, a sudden involuntary muscle contraction. The currently available oral dosage forms exhibit low oral bioavailability due to high first-pass metabolism. Frequent administration of the drug is thus necessary because of the short half-life of the drug. Transdermal delivery is an excellent alternative, but the skin's outer stratum corneum barrier prevents most drugs from being effectively delivered into the bloodstream. Here we present a pre-clinical investigation of derma roller mediated delivery of TIZ invasome gel as a potential approach for treating muscle spasm. Further, specific terpenes namely limonene and pinene in different concentrations and their impact on the properties of the prepared TIZ invasomes, including particle size, drug entrapment, and ex vivo drug release, were investigated. TIZ invasomes were incorporated into a gel and delivered to rats with and without pre-treatment of the skin with a derma roller. Pre-treated skin achieved maximum drug plasma concentrations within 3 ± 0.00 h of gel application and maintained for 24 h. In the untreated skin the maximum plasma drug levels was achieved at the end of 6 ± 0.00 h. The findings were further supported by in vivo efficacy studies conducted using rotarod and actophotometer. Overall, the study indicates that derma roller mediated transdermal delivery of TIZ loaded invasomes is a promising strategy for enhancing the bioavailability of TIZ.

Tocotrienols Ameliorate Neurodegeneration and Motor Deficits in the 6-OHDA-Induced Rat Model of Parkinsonism: Behavioural and Immunohistochemistry Analysis

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease, which progresses over time, causing pathological depigmentation of the substantia nigra (SN) in the midbrain due to loss of dopaminergic neurons. Emerging studies revealed the promising effects of some nutrient compounds in reducing the risk of PD. One such nutrient compound that possess neuroprotective effects and prevents neurodegeneration is tocotrienol (T3), a vitamin E family member. In the present study, a single dose intracisternal injection of 250 µg 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) was used to induce parkinsonism in male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats. Forty-eight hours post injection, the SD rats were orally supplemented with alpha (α)- and gamma (γ)-T3 for 28 days. The neuroprotective effects of α- and γ-T3 were evaluated using behavioural studies and immunohistochemistry (IHC). The findings from this study revealed that supplementation of α- and γ-T3 was able to ameliorate the motor deficits induced by 6-OHDA and improve the neuronal functions by reducing inflammation, reversing the neuronal degradation, and preventing further reduction of dopaminergic neurons in the SN and striatum (STR) fibre density.

Expression analysis and single-nucleotide polymorphisms of SYNDIG1L and UNC13C genes associated with thoracic vertebral numbers in sheep (Ovis aries)

The objective of the current study was to analyze expression levels of synapse differentiation inducing 1-like (SYNDIG1L) and unc-13 homolog C (UNC13C) genes in different tissues, while single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of two genes were associated with multiple thoracic vertebrae traits in both Small-tailed Han sheep (STH) and Sunite sheep (SNT). The expression levels of SYNDIG1L and UNC13C were analyzed in the brain, cerebellum, heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, adrenal gland, uterine horn, longissimus muscle, and abdominal adipose tissues of two sheep breeds with different thoracic vertebral number (TVN) sheep (T13 groups and T14 groups) by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Meanwhile, the polymorphisms of UNC13C gene g.52919279C>T and SYNDIG1L gene g.82573325C>A in T14 and T13 were genotyped by the Sequenom MassARRAY^® SNP assay, and association analysis was performed with the TVN. The results demonstrated that UNC13C gene was extensively expressed in 11 tissues. The expression of UNC13C gene in longissimus muscle of T14 groups of STH was significantly higher than that of T13 groups (P<0.05). SYNDIG1L gene was overexpressed in brain and cerebellum tissues, and the expression level of UNC13C gene in the brain and cerebellum of T13 groups in SNT was significantly higher than that of T14 groups (P<0.01). Association analysis showed that SNPs found in the UNC13C gene had no significant effects on TVN for both two genes. The polymorphism of SYNDIG1L g.82573325C>A was significantly correlated with the TVN in both STH (P<0.05) and SNT (P<0.01). Taken together, the SYNDIG1L gene was related to thoracic vertebral development, and this variation may be potentially used as a molecular marker to select the multiple thoracic vertebrae in sheep.

Dual Roles of Microglia in the Basal Ganglia in Parkinson's Disease

With the increasing age of the population, the incidence of Parkinson’s disease (PD) has increased exponentially. The development of novel therapeutic interventions requires an understanding of the involvement of senescent brain cells in the pathogenesis of PD. In this review, we highlight the roles played by microglia in the basal ganglia in the pathophysiological processes of PD. In PD, dopaminergic (DAergic) neuronal degeneration in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) activates the microglia, which then promote DAergic neuronal degeneration by releasing potentially neurotoxic factors, including nitric oxide, cytokines, and reactive oxygen species. On the other hand, microglia are also activated in the basal ganglia outputs (the substantia nigra pars reticulata and the globus pallidus) in response to excess glutamate released from hyperactive subthalamic nuclei-derived synapses. The activated microglia then eliminate the hyperactive glutamatergic synapses. Synapse elimination may be the mechanism underlying the compensation that masks the appearance of PD symptoms despite substantial DAergic neuronal loss. Microglial senescence may correlate with their enhanced neurotoxicity in the SNc and the reduced compensatory actions in the basal ganglia outputs. The dual roles of microglia in different basal ganglia regions make it difficult to develop interventions targeting microglia for PD treatment.

Idebenone Ameliorates Rotenone-Induced Parkinson's Disease in Rats Through Decreasing Lipid Peroxidation

Oxidative stress is considered one of the mechanisms responsible for neurodegenerative diseases, especially for Parkinson's disease. Since oxidative stress causes pathological changes in neuronal structures antioxidant compounds gained significant attention the last decades. Although several antioxidant compounds showed neuroprotective actions in Parkinson's disease models, only a few of them demonstrated protective effects against loss of striatal dopaminergic neurons. Idebenone is an analog of the well-known antioxidant compound coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10). Clinical safety of idebenone is well described, and due to its high antioxidant capacity currently used to treat Freidrich's ataxia and Alzheimer's disease. Like Parkinson's disease, these diseases are characterized by oxidative stress and impaired mitochondrial balance in neurons. However, knowledge about the effects of idebenone on Parkinson's disease is limited. Therefore, in this study we aimed to investigate and delineate the possible effects of idebenone in rotenone-induced Parkinson's disease models. Idebenone (200 mg/kg, p.o.) inhibited the decrease of striatal expression of NAD(P)H dehydrogenase[quinone]-1, which is an essential element for mitochondrial respiration. Idebenone decreased the striatal levels of the lipid peroxidation products and increased the expression of glutathione peroxidase-4 (GPx-4), which is primarily known for lipid peroxidation and ferroptosis. Furthermore, idebenone mitigated motor impairment and increased tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neuron survival. Together our results thus indicate that that idebenone has protective effects against a rotenone insult with pleiotropic actions on the cellular oxidative enzymes and lipid peroxidation.

Parkinson's Disease: A Review from Pathophysiology to Treatment

Parkinson's Disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease in the elderly population, with a higher prevalence in men, independent of race and social class; it affects approximately 1.5 to 2.0% of the elderly population over 60 years and 4% for those over 80 years of age. PD is caused by the necrosis of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, which is the brain region responsible for the synthesis of the neurotransmitter dopamine (DA), resulting in its decrease in the synaptic cleft. The monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) degrades dopamine, promoting the glutamate accumulation and oxidative stress with the release of free radicals, causing excitotoxicity. The PD symptoms are progressive physical limitations such as rigidity, bradykinesia, tremor, postural instability and disability in functional performance. Considering that there are no laboratory tests, biomarkers or imaging studies to confirm the disease, the diagnosis of PD is made by analyzing the motor features. There is no cure for PD, and the pharmacological treatment consists of a dopaminergic supplement with levodopa, COMT inhibitors, anticholinergics agents, dopaminergic agonists, and inhibitors of MAO-B, which basically aims to control the symptoms, enabling better functional mobility and increasing life expectancy of the treated PD patients. Due to the importance and increasing prevalence of PD in the world, this study reviews information on the pathophysiology, symptomatology as well as the most current and relevant treatments of PD patients.

K369I Tau Mice Demonstrate a Shift Towards Striatal Neuron Burst Firing and Goal-directed Behaviour

Pathological forms of the microtubule-associated protein tau are involved in a large group of neurodegenerative diseases named tauopathies, including frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD-tau). K369I mutant tau transgenic mice (K3 mice) recapitulate neural and behavioural symptoms of FTLD, including tau aggregates in the cortex, alterations to nigrostriatum, memory deficits and parkinsonism. The aim of this study was to further characterise the K3 mouse model by examining functional alterations to the striatum. Whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology was used to investigate the properties of striatal neurons in K3 mice and wildtype controls. Additionally, striatal-based instrumental learning tasks were conducted to assess goal-directed versus habitual behaviours (i.e., by examining sensitivity to outcome devaluation and progressive ratios). The K3 model demonstrated significant alterations in the discharge properties of striatal neurons relative to wildtype mice, which manifested as a shift in neuronal output towards a burst firing state. K3 mice acquired goal-directed responding faster than control mice and were goal-directed at test unlike wildtype mice, which is likely to indicate reduced capacity to develop habitual behaviour. The observed pattern of behaviour in K3 mice is suggestive of deficits in dorsal lateral striatal function and this was supported by our electrophysiological findings. Thus, both the electrophysiological and behavioural alterations indicate that K3 mice have early deficits in striatal function. This finding adds to the growing literature which indicate that the striatum is impacted in tau-related neuropathies such as FTLD, and further suggests that the K3 model is a unique mouse model for investigating FTLD especially with striatal involvement.

Synaptic elimination by microglia and disturbed higher brain functions

Microglial cells in normal mature brains have long been considered to be cells that are resting until pathological events take place, activating the microglial cells. However, it is currently well known that the microglia that have resting ramified morphology in normal mature brains move actively in the brain parenchyma and phagocytose synapses, thus forming and maintaining neural circuits. This review summarizes recent findings on the roles of microglia in mature brains, with special reference to phagocytosis of synapses and higher brain functions. Phagocytic elimination of synapses by microglia may affect the balance between excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission, termed the E/I balance. When impaired synaptic elimination by microglia leads to disturbed E/I balance, various problems may follow in brain functions: in memory and cognitive functions, sleep, movement, social behaviors, and thinking. In addition to the roles of microglia in normal developing and mature brains, impaired microglial phagocytosis functions also correlate with disturbances to these higher brain functions that are caused by neurological, mental, and developmental disorders; Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia.

Behavioral Tests in Neurotoxin-Induced Animal Models of Parkinson's Disease

Currently, neurodegenerative diseases are a major cause of disability around the world. Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second-leading cause of neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease. In PD, continuous loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra causes dopamine depletion in the striatum, promotes the primary motor symptoms of resting tremor, bradykinesia, muscle rigidity, and postural instability. The risk factors of PD comprise environmental toxins, drugs, pesticides, brain microtrauma, focal cerebrovascular injury, aging, and hereditary defects. The pathologic features of PD include impaired protein homeostasis, mitochondrial dysfunction, nitric oxide, and neuroinflammation, but the interaction of these factors contributing to PD is not fully understood. In neurotoxin-induced PD models, neurotoxins, for instance, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), 1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+), paraquat, rotenone, and permethrin mainly impair the mitochondrial respiratory chain, activate microglia, and generate reactive oxygen species to induce autooxidation and dopaminergic neuronal apoptosis. Since no current treatment can cure PD, using a suitable PD animal model to evaluate PD motor symptoms' treatment efficacy and identify therapeutic targets and drugs are still needed. Hence, the present review focuses on the latest scientific developments in different neurotoxin-induced PD animal models with their mechanisms of pathogenesis and evaluation methods of PD motor symptoms.

Effects of Heating-needle Stimulation in Restoration of Weakened Descending Inhibition of Nociception in a Rat Model of Parkinson's Disease

Here we investigated variations of endogenous descending modulation of nociception and therapeutic effects of intramuscular (i.m.) heating-needle stimulation in early stage of Parkinson's disease (PD) induced by unilateral microinjection of 3.5 μl of 2.5 μg/μl 6-hydroxydopamine into the rat striatum. Paw withdrawal reflexes to noxious mechanical and heat stimuli in PD rats with and without exposure to i.m. 5.8% saline induced muscle nociception were evaluated. Experimental PD had no influence on mechanical or heat sensitivity in the baseline condition, whereas descending facilitation was stronger and descending inhibition was weaker in PD rats than vehicle-treated or naive rats during muscle nociception (P < 0.05). Striatal administration of 5 μg of dopamine failed to reverse the PD-associated changes in descending facilitation or inhibition, whereas dopamine in the thalamic mediodorsal (MD) nucleus and ventromedial (VM) nucleus significantly decreased the increase in descending facilitation and reversed the attenuation in descending inhibition, respectively (P < 0.05). I.m. 43 °C of heating-needle stimulation had no effects on the enhanced descending facilitation in PD rats, but it markedly increased descending inhibition and reversed the increase in the number of apomorphine-induced body rotations (P < 0.05), which effects were dose-dependently attenuated by raclopride, a dopamine 2 receptor antagonist, in the thalamic VM nucleus (P < 0.05). The results indicate that the early-stage PD is associated with enhanced descending facilitation and weakened descending inhibition. From clinical perspective, 43 °C heat therapeutic regime promises to selectively enhance descending inhibition that is accompanied by improvement of motor dysfunction in PD.

Dopamine-loaded poly (butyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles reverse behavioral deficits in Parkinson’s animal models

Aim: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurological disorder resulting from decreased dopamine (DA) secretion in the brain, which reflects impaired motor function. Thus, a drug-delivery system for releasing DA into the brain would be of crucial importance. Materials & methods: We herein examined the in vivo drug efficiency of novel poly-butyl-cyanoacrylate nanoparticles loaded with DA (DA-PBCA NPs). Results & conclusion: The NPs were able to pass through the blood–brain barrier and improve brain structure and function in the PD animal models. Moreover, we found a reduced α-synucleinopathy in the animal model brains after the NPs administration. Thus, the NPs seem to be a reliable DA delivery system for treating PD patients.

Comparison between Tail Suspension Swing Test and Standard Rotation Test in Revealing Early Motor Behavioral Changes and Neurodegeneration in 6-OHDA Hemiparkinsonian Rats

The unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) model of Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most commonly used in rodents. The anatomical, metabolic, and behavioral changes that occur after severe and stable 6-OHDA lesions have been extensively studied. Here, we investigated whether early motor behavioral deficits can be observed in the first week after the injection of 6-OHDA into the right substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), and if they were indicative of the severity of the dopaminergic (DAergic) lesion in the SNc and the striatum at different time-points (day 1, 3, 5, 7, 14, 21). With this aim, we used our newly modified tail suspension swing test (TSST), the standard rotation test (RT), and immunohistochemical staining for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). The TSST, but not the standard RT, revealed a spontaneous motor bias for the 6-OHDA-lesioned rats from the day 1 post-surgery. Both tests detected the motor asymmetry induced by (single and repeated) apomorphine (APO) challenges that correlated, in the first week, with the DAergic neuronal degeneration. The described TSST is fast and easy to perform, and in the drug-free condition is useful for the functional assessment of early motor asymmetry appearing after the 6-OHDA-lesion in the SNc, without the confounding effect of APO challenges.

Aggravating effects of treadmill exercises during the early-onset period in a rat traumatic brain injury model: When should rehabilitation exercises be initiated?

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A traumatic brain injury model was prepared in rats by stab wounding.

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Rats were forced to walk slowly on a treadmill once for 10 min at 24 h or 48 h after wounding.

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Exercise, particularly at 24 h, aggravated motor impairment while increasing the expression of proinflammatory factors.

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Exercise for rehabilitation should be initiated after 48 h of severe brain injury onset.

Physical exercise is one of the best interventions for improving traumatic brain injury (TBI) outcomes. However, an argument has been raised regarding the timing at which physical exercise should be initiated. In this study, male Wistar rats were subjected to stab wounding of the right hemisphere to develop a TBI model and were forced to walk once on a treadmill at a 5-m/min pace at 24 h or 48 h after TBI for 10 min. Injured brain tissue was dissected after TBI to evaluate the effects of exercise. Behavioral abnormalities and motor impairment were assessed by various behavioral tests between 2 and 3 weeks after TBI. Exercise did not affect the circulating corticosterone levels and the weight of the adrenal glands. Exercise particularly that at 24 h, worsened the motor impairment of the left forelimbs. Quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction showed that exercise at 24 h increased proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines on the third day while suppressing the proinflammatory reactions on the fourth day. Exercise at both time points decreased expression of transforming growth factor (TGF) β1 and its receptor TGFβR1. Exercise at 24 h increased phosphorylation of IκB kinase on the fourth day, which may be correlated with the decreased effects of TGFβ1. Even a low-intensity exercise activity could cause deleterious effects when it is initiated within 48 h after the onset of severe TBI, probably because of the resulting proinflammatory effects. Therefore, rehabilitation exercise programs should be initiated after 48 h of TBI onset.

Differential Effects of LPS and 6-OHDA on Microglia's Morphology in Rats: Implications for Inflammatory Model of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is an idiopathic and progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by the loss of ~ 80% of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Because activation of the innate cellular immune response, mediated by microglia, has been linked to the neurodegeneration in PD, in the present study, we evaluated the effects of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) on microglia's morphology, reflective of their activity, as well as tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive neurons in SNpc and motor behavior. Adult male Wistar rats were stereotactically injected with LPS or 6-OHDA into the left dorsolateral striatum. Control groups received appropriate vehicle. The morphological changes of microglial cells and neurotoxic effects were examined at 1, 7, and 14 post-injection days. Both LPS and 6-OHDA caused activation and morphological changes in microglial cells as well as loss of dopaminergic neurons in SNpc. These effects were maximal at 14 days post-injection where motor impairments were also evident. However, our findings indicate that 6-OHDA causes a low degree of microglia activation compared to LPS. Hence, it may be concluded that LPS model of PD might be a better representation of inflammatory involvement in this devastating disease.

Influence of intranasal exposure of MPTP in multiple doses on liver functions and transition from non-motor to motor symptoms in a rat PD model

Besides the effects on the striatum, the impairment of visceral organs including liver functions has been reported in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. However, it is yet unclear if liver functions are affected in the early stage of the disease before the motor phase has appeared. The aim of our present study was thus to assess the effect of intranasal administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) in different doses on striatum and liver functions. Deterioration of non-motor activities appeared on single exposure to MPTP along with rise in striatum oxidative stress and decline in antioxidant levels. Decreases in dopamine, noradrenaline, and GABA and increase in serotonin were detected in striatum. Motor coordination was impaired with a single dose of MPTP, and with repeated MPTP exposure, there was further significant impairment. Locomotor activity was affected from second exposure of MPTP, and the impairment increased with third MPTP exposure. Impairment of liver function through increase in serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels was observed after first MPTP insult, and it worsened with second and third administrations. First administration of MPTP triggered systemic inflammation showing significant increase in inflammatory markers in the liver. Our data shows for the first time that an intranasal route of entry of MPTP affects liver from the non-motor phase of PD itself, occurring concomitantly with the reduction of striatal dopamine. It also suggests that a single dose is not enough to bring about progression of the disease from non-motor to locomotor deficiency, and a repeated dose is needed to establish the motor severity phase in the rat intranasal MPTP model.

miR-425 deficiency promotes necroptosis and dopaminergic neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease

A major hallmark of Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, and the causative mechanism is thought to be the activation of programmed neuronal death. Necroptosis is a regulated process of cell death triggered by RIPK1. Although the pathophysiology of PD has been studied extensively, the cellular mechanism underlying dopaminergic neuron death remains unclear. In this study, we detected a specific miRNA, miR-425, in response to MPTP toxicity and dopaminergic degeneration. In MPTP-treated mice, we observed necroptosis activation and miR-425 deficiency in the substantia nigra, which is correlated with dopaminergic neuron loss. This miRNA targeted RIPK1 transcripts and promoted the phosphorylation of MLKL and necroptosis. Similarly, in the brains of PD patients, miR-425 deficiency and necroptosis activation were also confirmed in dopaminergic neuron. Furthermore, we found that genetic knockdown of miR-425 aggravated MPTP-induced motor deficits and dopaminergic neurodegeneration via early upregulation of necroptotic genes. Intracerebral miR-425 mimics (AgomiR-425) treatment attenuated necroptosis activation and dopaminergic neuron loss, and improved locomotor behaviors. In conclusion, our study suggests that miR-425 deficiency triggers necroptosis of dopaminergic neurons, and targeting miR-425 in MPTP-treated mice restored dysfunctional dopaminergic neurodegeneration and ameliorated behavioral deficits. These findings identify brain delivery of miR-425 as a potential therapeutic approach for the treatment of PD.

Ginsenoside Rb1 protects dopaminergic neurons from inflammatory injury induced by intranigral lipopolysaccharide injection

Accumulating studies suggest that neuroinflammation characterized by microglial overactivation plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease. As such, inhibition of microglial overactivation might be a promising treatment strategy to delay the onset or slow the progression of Parkinson’s disease. Ginsenoside Rb1, the most active ingredient of ginseng, reportedly exerts neuroprotective effects by suppressing inflammation in vitro. The present study aimed to evaluate the neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of ginsenoside Rb1 in a lipopolysaccharide-induced rat Parkinson’s disease model. Rats were divided into four groups. In the control group, sham-operated rats were intraperitoneally administered normal saline for 14 consecutive days. In the ginsenoside Rb1 group, ginsenoside Rb1 (20 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally injected for 14 consecutive days after sham surgery. In the lipopolysaccharide group, a single dose of lipopolysaccharide was unilaterally microinjected into the rat substantial nigra to establish the Parkinson’s disease model. Lipopolysaccharide-injected rats were treated with normal saline for 14 consecutive days. In the ginsenoside Rb1 + lipopolysaccharide group, lipopolysaccharide was unilaterally microinjected into the rat substantial nigra. Subsequently, ginsenoside Rb1 was intraperitoneally injected for 14 consecutive days. To investigate the therapeutic effects of ginsenoside Rb1, behavioral tests were performed on day 15 after lipopolysaccharide injection. We found that ginsenoside Rb1 treatment remarkably reduced apomorphine-induced rotations in lipopolysaccharide-treated rats compared with the lipopolysaccharide group. To investigate the neurotoxicity of lipopolysaccharide and potential protective effect of ginsenoside Rb1, contents of dopamine and its metabolites in the striatum were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. Compared with the lipopolysaccharide group, ginsenoside Rb1 obviously attenuated the lipopolysaccharide-induced depletion of dopamine and its metabolites in the striatum. To further explore the neuroprotective effect of ginsenoside Rb1 against lipopolysaccharide-induced neurotoxicity, immunohistochemistry and western blot assay of tyrosine hydroxylase were performed to evaluate dopaminergic neuron degeneration in the substantial nigra par compacta. The results showed that lipopolysaccharide injection caused a large loss of tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive neurons in the substantia nigra and a significant decrease in overall tyrosine hydroxylase expression. However, ginsenoside Rb1 noticeably reversed these changes. To investigate whether the neuroprotective effect of ginsenoside Rb1 was associated with inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial activation, we examined expression of the microglia marker Iba-1. Our results confirmed that lipopolysaccharide injection induced a significant increase in Iba-1 expression in the substantia nigra; however, ginsenoside Rb1 effectively suppressed lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial overactivation. To elucidate the inhibitory mechanism of ginsenoside Rb1, we examined expression levels of inflammatory mediators (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and cyclooxygenase 2) and phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa B signaling-related proteins (IκB, IKK) in the substantia nigra with enzyme-linked immunosorbent and western blot assays. Our results revealed that compared with the control group, phosphorylation and expression of inflammatory mediators IκB and IKK in the substantia nigra of lipopolysaccharide group rats were significantly increased; whereas, ginsenoside Rb1 obviously reduced lipopolysaccharide-induced changes on the lesioned side of the substantial nigra par compacta. These findings confirm that ginsenoside Rb1 can inhibit inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide injection into the substantia nigra and protect dopaminergic neurons, which may be related to its inhibition of the nuclear factor kappa B signaling pathway. This study was approved by the Experimental Animal Ethics Committee of Shandong University of China in April 2016 (approval No. KYLL-2016-0148).

Treatment Of Magnesium-L-Threonate Elevates The Magnesium Level In The Cerebrospinal Fluid And Attenuates Motor Deficits And Dopamine Neuron Loss In A Mouse Model Of Parkinson's disease

PURPOSE

Epidemiology research has demonstrated that magnesium (Mg) deficiency is associated with a high incidence of Parkinson's disease (PD). It is known that the systemic administration of MgSO₄ is not able to elevate the Mg concentration in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). This study aims to verify the protective effect of magnesium-L-threonate (MgT) in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) mouse model.

METHODS

C57BL/6J mice were orally administered MgT or MgSO₄ for 4 weeks, and received MPTP in the third week. After analysis of open-field and rotarod tests on the last day, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunopositive cells and protein levels were quantified in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and striatum. The expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) level was evaluated. Mg concentration in serum and CSF was measured after oral administration of MgSO₄ or MgT in normal mice. Mg concentration in the CSF was increased in the mice treated with MgT but not MgSO₄.

RESULTS

The total distance and mean speed in open-field tests, and the time spent on rotarod in the MgT group were increased, compared with MPTP group. The MgT treatment but not MgSO₄ dose-dependently attenuated the loss of TH-positive neurons, and the reduction of the TH expression in the SNpc. The MgT treatment also inhibited the expression of iNOS as measured by immunohistochemistry and Western blots. Double-immunofluorescence staining of TH and iNOS showed iNOS-positive cells were collocalized for TH-positive cells.

CONCLUSION

The treatment with MgT is associated with an increase of Mg in the CSF. MgT, rather than MgSO4, can significantly attenuate MPTP-induced motor deficits and dopamine (DA) neuron loss.