PMA increases M3 muscarinic receptor levels and decreases retinal cells proliferation through a change in the levels of cell-cycle regulatory proteins

Insulin-like growth factor-1 stimulates retinal cell proliferation via activation of multiple signaling pathways

Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) plays critical roles in the development of the central nervous system (CNS), including the retina, regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival. Here, we investigated the role of IGF-1 on retinal cell proliferation using primary cultures from rat neural retina. Our data show that IGF-1 stimulates retinal cell proliferation and regulates the expression of neurotrophic factors, such as interleukin-4 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. In addition, our results indicates that IGF-1-induced retinal cell proliferation requires activation of multiple signaling pathways, including phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, protein kinase Src, phospholipase-C, protein kinase C delta, and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. We further show that activation of matrix metalloproteinases and epidermal growth factor receptor is also necessary for IGF-1 enhancing retinal cell proliferation. Overall, these results unveil potential mechanisms by which IGF-1 ensures retinal cell proliferation and support the notion that manipulation of IGF-1 signaling may be beneficial in CNS disorders associated with abnormal cell proliferation.

Interleukin-4 activates divergent cell-intrinsic signals to regulate retinal cell proliferation induced by classical growth factors

In the developing retina, precise coordination of cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival is essential for proper retinal maturation and function. We have previously reported evidence that interleukin-4 (IL-4) plays critical roles in neuronal differentiation and survival during retinal development. However, little is known about the role of IL-4 on retinal cell proliferation. In the current study, we investigated if IL-4 regulates cell proliferation induced by epidermal growth factor (EGF) and by fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) in primary retinal cell cultures obtained from newborn rats. First, we show that EGF and FGF2 act as mitogens for glial cells, increasing proliferation of these cells in the retina. EGF- and FGF2-induced mitogenesis requires activation of distinct cell-intrinsic signals. In retinal cells exposed to FGF2, IL-4 downregulates p53 levels (a protein whose activation induces cell-cycle arrest) and increases mitogenic responsiveness to FGF2 through activation of protein kinase A (PKA) pathway. Conversely, in retinal cells exposed to EGF, IL-4 downregulates cyclin D1 levels (a protein required for cell-cycle progression), upregulates p53 levels, and decreases mitogenic responsiveness to EGF. The inhibitory effect induced by IL-4 on retinal cells exposed to EGF requires activation of Janus kinase 3 (JAK3), but not activation of PKA. Based on previous and current findings, we propose that IL-4 serves as a node of signal divergence, modulating multiple cell-intrinsic signals (e.g., cyclin D1, p53, JAK3, and PKA) and mitogenic responsiveness to cell-extrinsic signals (e.g., FGF2 and EGF) to control cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival during retinal development.

Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors in the Retina-Therapeutic Implications

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) belong to the superfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The family of mAChRs is composed of five subtypes, M1, M2, M3, M4 and M5, which have distinct expression patterns and functions. In the eye and its adnexa, mAChRs are widely expressed and exert multiple functions, such as modulation of tear secretion, regulation of pupil size, modulation of intraocular pressure, participation in cell-to-cell signaling and modula-tion of vascular diameter in the retina. Due to this variety of functions, it is reasonable to assume that abnormalities in mAChR signaling may contribute to the development of various ocular diseases. On the other hand, mAChRs may offer an attractive therapeutic target to treat ocular diseases. Thus far, non-subtype-selective mAChR ligands have been used in ophthalmology to treat dry eye disease, myopia and glaucoma. However, these drugs were shown to cause various side-effects. Thus, the use of subtype-selective ligands would be useful to circumvent this problem. In this review, we give an overview on the localization and on the functional role of mAChR subtypes in the eye and its adnexa with a special focus on the retina. Moreover, we describe the pathophysiological role of mAChRs in retinal diseases and discuss potential therapeutic approaches.

Evidence for a direct effect of the autonomic nervous system on intestinal epithelial stem cell proliferation

The sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic (PNS) branches of the autonomic nervous system have been implicated in the modulation of the renewal of many tissues, including the intestinal epithelium. However, it is not known whether these mechanisms are direct, requiring an interaction between autonomic neurotransmitters and receptors on proliferating epithelial cells. To evaluate the existence of a molecular framework for a direct effect of the SNS or PNS on intestinal epithelial renewal, we measured gene expression for the main autonomic neurotransmitter receptors in this tissue. We separately evaluated intestinal epithelial regions comprised of the stem, progenitor, and mature cells, which allowed us to investigate the distinct contributions of each cell population to this proposed autonomic effect. Notably, we found that the stem cells expressed the receptors for the SNS-associated alpha2A adrenoreceptor and the PNS-associated muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M1 and M3). In a separate experiment, we found that the application of norepinephrine or acetylcholine decreases the expression of cyclin D1, a gene necessary for cell cycle progression, in intestinal epithelial organoids compared with controls (P < 0.05). Together, these results provide evidence of a direct mechanism for the autonomic nervous system influence on intestinal epithelial stem cell proliferation.

PKC delta activation increases neonatal rat retinal cells survival in vitro: Involvement of neurotrophins and M1 muscarinic receptors

Protein kinase C (PKC) is a family of serine/threonine kinases related to several phenomena as cell proliferation, differentiation and survival. Our previous data demonstrated that treatment of axotomized neonatal rat retinal cell cultures for 48 h with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), a PKC activator, increases retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) survival. Moreover, this treatment decreases M1 receptors (M1R) and modulates BDNF levels. The aim of this work was to assess the possible involvement of neurotrophins BDNF and NGF in the modulation of M1R levels induced by PKC activation, and its involvement on RGCs survival. Our results show that PMA (50 ng/mL) treatment, via PKC delta activation, modulates NGF, BDNF and M1R levels. BDNF and NGF mediate the decrease of M1R levels induced by PMA treatment. M1R activation is essential to PMA neuroprotective effect on RGCs as telenzepine (M1R selective antagonist) abolished it. Based on our results we suggest that PKC delta activation modulates neurotrophins levels by a signaling pathway that involves M1R activation and ultimately leading to an increase in RGCs survival in vitro.

IL-4 Induces Cholinergic Differentiation of Retinal Cells In Vitro

Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is a pleiotropic cytokine that regulates several phenomena, among them survival and differentiation of neuronal and glial cells. The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of IL-4 on the cholinergic differentiation of neonatal rat retinal cells in vitro, evaluating its effect on the levels of cholinergic markers (CHT1-high-affinity choline transporter; VAChT-vesicular acetylcholine transporter, ChAT-choline acetyltransferase, AChE-acetylcholinesterase), muscarinic receptors, and on the signaling pathways involved. Lister Hooded rat pups were used in postnatal days 0-2 (P0-P2). Our results show that IL-4 treatment (50 U/mL) for 48 h increases the levels of the cholinergic transporters VAChT and CHT1, the acetylcholinesterase activity, and the number of ChAT-positive cells. It also induces changes in muscarinic receptor levels, leading to a small decrease in M1 levels and a significant increase in M3 and M5 levels after 48 h of treatment. We also showed that IL-4 effect on M3 receptors is dependent on type I IL-4 receptor and on an increase in NFκB phosphorylation. These results indicate that IL-4 stimulates cholinergic differentiation of retinal cells.