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Simões JLB, de Carvalho Braga G, Eichler SW, da Silva GB, Bagatini MD. Implications of COVID-19 in Parkinson's disease: the purinergic system in a therapeutic-target perspective to diminish neurodegeneration. Purinergic Signal 2024:10.1007/s11302-024-09998-7. [PMID: 38460075 DOI: 10.1007/s11302-024-09998-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024] Open
Abstract
The pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) is marked by degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. With advent of COVID-19, which is closely associated with generalized inflammation and multiple organ dysfunctions, the PD patients may develop severe conditions of disease leading to exacerbated degeneration. This condition is caused by the excessive release of pro-inflammatory markers, called cytokine storm, that is capable of triggering neurodegenerative conditions by affecting the blood-brain barrier (BBB). A possible SARS-CoV-2 infection, in serious cases, may compromise the immune system by triggering a hyperstimulation of the neuroimmune response, similar to the pathological processes found in PD. From this perspective, the inflammatory scenario triggers oxidative stress and, consequently, cellular dysfunction in the nervous tissue. The P2X7R seems to be the key mediator of the neuroinflammatory process, as it acts by increasing the concentration of ATP, allowing the influx of Ca2+ and the occurrence of mutations in the α-synuclein protein, causing activation of this receptor. Thus, modulation of the purinergic system may have therapeutic potential on the effects of PD, as well as on the damage caused by inflammation of the BBB, which may be able to mitigate the neurodegeneration caused by diseases. Considering all the processes of neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction that PD propose, we can conclude that the P2X7 antagonist acts in the prevention of viral diseases, and it also controls purinergic receptors formed by multi-target compounds directed to self-amplification circuits and, therefore, may be a viable strategy to obtain the desired disease-modifying effect. Thus, purinergic system receptor modulations have a high therapeutic potential for neurodegenerative diseases such as PD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Gilnei Bruno da Silva
- Multicentric Postgraduate Program in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, State University of Santa Catarina, Lages, SC, Brazil
| | - Margarete Dulce Bagatini
- Graduate Program in Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Fronteira Sul, Chapecó, SC, Brazil.
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2
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Cherninskyi A, Storozhuk M, Maximyuk O, Kulyk V, Krishtal O. Triggering of Major Brain Disorders by Protons and ATP: The Role of ASICs and P2X Receptors. Neurosci Bull 2023; 39:845-862. [PMID: 36445556 PMCID: PMC9707125 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-022-00986-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is well-known as a universal source of energy in living cells. Less known is that this molecule has a variety of important signaling functions: it activates a variety of specific metabotropic (P2Y) and ionotropic (P2X) receptors in neuronal and non-neuronal cell membranes. So, a wide variety of signaling functions well fits the ubiquitous presence of ATP in the tissues. Even more ubiquitous are protons. Apart from the unspecific interaction of protons with any protein, many physiological processes are affected by protons acting on specific ionotropic receptors-acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs). Both protons (acidification) and ATP are locally elevated in various pathological states. Using these fundamentally important molecules as agonists, ASICs and P2X receptors signal a variety of major brain pathologies. Here we briefly outline the physiological roles of ASICs and P2X receptors, focusing on the brain pathologies involving these receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrii Cherninskyi
- Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, 01024, Ukraine.
| | - Maksim Storozhuk
- Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, 01024, Ukraine
| | - Oleksandr Maximyuk
- Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, 01024, Ukraine
| | - Vyacheslav Kulyk
- Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, 01024, Ukraine
| | - Oleg Krishtal
- Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, 01024, Ukraine
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3
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Mut-Arbona P, Sperlágh B. P2 receptor-mediated signaling in the physiological and pathological brain: From development to aging and disease. Neuropharmacology 2023; 233:109541. [PMID: 37062423 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
The purinergic pathway mediates both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses, whereas the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is in a critical equilibrium. Under physiological conditions, extracellular ATP is maintained at a nanomolar concentration. Whether released into the medium following tissue damage, inflammation, or hypoxia, ATP is considered a clear indicator of cell damage and a marker of pathological conditions. In this overview, we provide an update on the participation of P2 receptor-mediated purinergic signaling in normal and pathological brain development, with special emphasis on neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders. Since purinergic signaling is ubiquitous, it is not surprising that it plays a prominent role in developmental processes and pathological alterations. The main aim of this review is to conceptualize the time-dependent dynamic changes in the participation of different players in the purinome in shaping the normal and aberrant developmental patterns and diseases of the central nervous system over one's lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Mut-Arbona
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary; János Szentágothai Doctoral School, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Beáta Sperlágh
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary; János Szentágothai Doctoral School, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.
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4
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Intracellular DAMPs in Neurodegeneration and Their Role in Clinical Therapeutics. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:3600-3616. [PMID: 36859688 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03289-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is the major implication of neurodegeneration. This is a complex process which initiates from the cellular injury triggering the innate immune system which gives rise to damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) which are also recognized as endogenous danger indicators. These originate from various compartments of the cell under pathological stimulus. These are very popular candidates having their origin in the intracellular compartments and organelles of the cell and may have their site of action itself in the intracellular or at the extracellular spaces. Under the influence of the pathological stimuli, they interact with the pattern-recognition receptor to initiate their pro-inflammatory cascade followed by the cytokine release. This provides a good opportunity for diagnostic and therapeutic interventions creating better conditions for repair and reversal. Since the major contributors arise from the intracellular compartment, in this review, we have attempted to focus on the DAMP molecules arising from the intracellular compartments and their specific roles in the neurodegenerative events explaining their downstream mediators and signaling. Moreover, we have tried to cover the latest interventions in terms of DAMPs as clinical biomarkers which can assist in detecting the disease and also target it to reduce the innate-immune activation response which can help in reducing the sterile neuroinflammation having an integral role in the neurodegenerative processes.
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5
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P2X7 Receptor and Purinergic Signaling: Orchestrating Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Neurodegenerative Diseases. eNeuro 2022; 9:9/6/ENEURO.0092-22.2022. [PMID: 36376084 PMCID: PMC9665882 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0092-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction is one of the basic hallmarks of cellular pathology in neurodegenerative diseases. Since the metabolic activity of neurons is highly dependent on energy supply, nerve cells are especially vulnerable to impaired mitochondrial function. Besides providing oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondria are also involved in controlling levels of second messengers such as Ca2+ ions and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Interestingly, the critical role of mitochondria as producers of ROS is closely related to P2XR purinergic receptors, the activity of which is modulated by free radicals. Here, we review the relationships between the purinergic signaling system and affected mitochondrial function. Purinergic signaling regulates numerous vital biological processes in the CNS. The two main purines, ATP and adenosine, act as excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, respectively. Current evidence suggests that purinergic signaling best explains how neuronal activity is related to neuronal electrical activity and energy homeostasis, especially in the development of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. In this review, we focus on the mechanisms underlying the involvement of the P2RX7 purinoreceptor in triggering mitochondrial dysfunction during the development of neurodegenerative disorders. We also summarize various avenues by which the purine signaling pathway may trigger metabolic dysfunction contributing to neuronal death and the inflammatory activation of glial cells. Finally, we discuss the potential role of the purinergic system in the search for new therapeutic approaches to treat neurodegenerative diseases.
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6
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Sarkar S. Microglial ion channels: Key players in non-cell autonomous neurodegeneration. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 174:105861. [PMID: 36115552 PMCID: PMC9617777 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a critical pathophysiological hallmark of neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and traumatic brain injury (TBI). Microglia, the first responders of the brain, are the drivers of this neuroinflammation. Microglial activation, leading to induction of pro-inflammatory factors, like Interleukin 1-β (IL-1β), Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα), nitrites, and others, have been shown to induce neurodegeneration. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been shown to reduce the risk of developing PD, but the mechanism underlying the microglial activation is still under active research. Recently, microglial ion channels have come to the forefront as potential drug targets in multiple neurodegenerative disorders, including AD and PD. Microglia expresses a variety of ion channels, including potassium channels, calcium channels, chloride channels, sodium channels, and proton channels. The diversity of channels present on microglia is responsible for the dynamic nature of these immune cells of the brain. These ion channels regulate microglial proliferation, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, antigen recognition and presentation, apoptosis, and cell signaling leading to inflammation, among other critical functions. Understanding the role of these ion channels and the signaling mechanism these channels regulate under pathological conditions is an active area of research. This review will be focusing on the roles of different microglial ion channels, and their potential role in regulating microglial functions in neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Souvarish Sarkar
- Dept. of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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7
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Mitochondrial Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns Content in Extracellular Vesicles Promotes Early Inflammation in Neurodegenerative Disorders. Cells 2022; 11:cells11152364. [PMID: 35954208 PMCID: PMC9367540 DOI: 10.3390/cells11152364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a common hallmark in different neurodegenerative conditions that share neuronal dysfunction and a progressive loss of a selectively vulnerable brain cell population. Alongside ageing and genetics, inflammation, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are considered key risk factors. Microglia are considered immune sentinels of the central nervous system capable of initiating an innate and adaptive immune response. Nevertheless, the pathological mechanisms underlying the initiation and spread of inflammation in the brain are still poorly described. Recently, a new mechanism of intercellular signalling mediated by small extracellular vesicles (EVs) has been identified. EVs are nanosized particles (30–150 nm) with a bilipid membrane that carries cell-specific bioactive cargos that participate in physiological or pathological processes. Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are cellular components recognised by the immune receptors of microglia, inducing or aggravating neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative disorders. Diverse evidence links mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation mediated by mitochondrial-DAMPs (mtDAMPs) such as mitochondrial DNA, mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM) and cardiolipin, among others. Mitochondrial-derived vesicles (MDVs) are a subtype of EVs produced after mild damage to mitochondria and, upon fusion with multivesicular bodies are released as EVs to the extracellular space. MDVs are particularly enriched in mtDAMPs which can induce an immune response and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Importantly, growing evidence supports the association between mitochondrial dysfunction, EV release and inflammation. Here, we describe the role of extracellular vesicles-associated mtDAMPS in physiological conditions and as neuroinflammation activators contributing to neurodegenerative disorders.
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8
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Platelets and the Role of P2X Receptors in Nociception, Pain, Neuronal Toxicity and Thromboinflammation. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126585. [PMID: 35743029 PMCID: PMC9224425 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
P2X receptors belong to a family of cation channel proteins, which respond to extracellular adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP). These receptors have gained increasing attention in basic and translational research, as they are central to a variety of important pathophysiological processes such as the modulation of cardiovascular physiology, mediation of nociception, platelet and macrophage activation, or neuronal-glial integration. While P2X1 receptor activation is long known to drive platelet aggregation, P2X7 receptor antagonists have recently been reported to inhibit platelet activation. Considering the role of both P2X receptors and platelet-mediated inflammation in neuronal diseases such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and stroke, targeting purinergic receptors may provide a valuable novel therapeutic approach in these diseases. Therefore, the present review illuminates the role of platelets and purinergic signaling in these neurological conditions to evaluate potential translational implications.
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9
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Xiong Y, Zhou D, Zheng K, Bi W, Dong Y. Extracellular Adenosine Triphosphate Binding to P2Y1 Receptors Prevents Glutamate-Induced Excitotoxicity: Involvement of Erk1/2 Signaling Pathway to Suppress Autophagy. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:901688. [PMID: 35747207 PMCID: PMC9209742 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.901688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutamate-induced neuroexcitotoxicity could be related to the pathophysiology of some neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Extracellular ATP exerts a wide variety of functions, such as attenuating Aβ-mediated toxicity, inhibiting N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunit combinations, and aggravating ischemic brain injury. However, the effect of extracellular ATP on glutamate-induced neuroexcitotoxicity remains largely unknown. Herein, we showed that extracellular ATP prevented the glutamate-induced excitotoxicity via binding to its P2Y1 receptors. We found that excessive glutamate triggered cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduction and mitochondrial membrane potential damage, which were significantly attenuated by extracellular ATP. Besides, glutamate activated autophagy, as illustrated by the increased protein level of autophagic marker LC3II and decreased level of p62, and glutamate-induced neuroexcitotoxicity could be completely abolished by autophagy inhibitor chloroquine. In addition, we revealed that extracellular ATP activated Erk1/2 signaling to suppress autophagy and to exert its neuroprotective effects, which was further reduced by autophagy agonist rapamycin and the selective Erk1/2 inhibitor PD0325901. Taken together, our findings suggest that extracellular ATP binding to P2Y1 receptors protected against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity via Erk1/2-mediated autophagy inhibition, implying the potential of ATP for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiping Xiong
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Duanyang Zhou
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Kai Zheng
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Wenchuan Bi
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yun Dong
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
- School of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Zhuhai College of Science and Technology, Zhuhai, China
- *Correspondence: Yun Dong, ; orcid.org/0000-0002-5658-3896
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10
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Glaser T, Andrejew R, Oliveira-Giacomelli Á, Ribeiro DE, Bonfim Marques L, Ye Q, Ren WJ, Semyanov A, Illes P, Tang Y, Ulrich H. Purinergic Receptors in Basal Ganglia Diseases: Shared Molecular Mechanisms between Huntington's and Parkinson's Disease. Neurosci Bull 2020; 36:1299-1314. [PMID: 33026587 PMCID: PMC7674528 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-020-00582-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntington's (HD) and Parkinson's diseases (PD) are neurodegenerative disorders caused by the death of GABAergic and dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia leading to hyperkinetic and hypokinetic symptoms, respectively. We review here the participation of purinergic receptors through intracellular Ca2+ signaling in these neurodegenerative diseases. The adenosine A2A receptor stimulates striatopallidal GABAergic neurons, resulting in inhibitory actions on GABAergic neurons of the globus pallidus. A2A and dopamine D2 receptors form functional heteromeric complexes inducing allosteric inhibition, and A2A receptor activation results in motor inhibition. Furthermore, the A2A receptor physically and functionally interacts with glutamate receptors, mainly with the mGlu5 receptor subtype. This interaction facilitates glutamate release, resulting in NMDA glutamate receptor activation and an increase of Ca2+ influx. P2X7 receptor activation also promotes glutamate release and neuronal damage. Thus, modulation of purinergic receptor activity, such as A2A and P2X7 receptors, and subsequent aberrant Ca2+ signaling, might present interesting therapeutic potential for HD and PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talita Glaser
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 748, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Roberta Andrejew
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 748, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Ágatha Oliveira-Giacomelli
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 748, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Deidiane Elisa Ribeiro
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 748, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Lucas Bonfim Marques
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 748, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Qing Ye
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 748, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
- Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province for Acupuncture and Chronobiology, Chengdu, 610075, China
| | - Wen-Jing Ren
- Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province for Acupuncture and Chronobiology, Chengdu, 610075, China
- Rudolf-Boehm-Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, 04107, Germany
| | - Alexey Semyanov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 117997, Russia
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, 119992, Russia
| | - Peter Illes
- Rudolf-Boehm-Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, 04107, Germany
- International Collaborative Centre on Big Science Plan for Purine Signaling, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China
| | - Yong Tang
- Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province for Acupuncture and Chronobiology, Chengdu, 610075, China
- International Collaborative Centre on Big Science Plan for Purine Signaling, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China
| | - Henning Ulrich
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 748, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil.
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11
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Schrank S, Barrington N, Stutzmann GE. Calcium-Handling Defects and Neurodegenerative Disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2020; 12:cshperspect.a035212. [PMID: 31427373 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a035212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Calcium signaling is critical to neuronal function and regulates highly diverse processes such as gene transcription, energy production, protein handling, and synaptic structure and function. Because there are many common underlying calcium-mediated pathological features observed across several neurological conditions, it has been proposed that neurodegenerative diseases have an upstream underlying calcium basis in their pathogenesis. With certain diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's, specific sources of calcium dysregulation originating from distinct neuronal compartments or channels have been shown to have defined roles in initiating or sustaining disease mechanisms. Herein, we will review the major hallmarks of these diseases, and how they relate to calcium dysregulation. We will then discuss neuronal calcium handling throughout the neuron, with special emphasis on channels involved in neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Schrank
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Therapeutics, Rosalind Franklin University, North Chicago, Illinois 60064.,School of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, Rosalind Franklin University, North Chicago, Illinois 60064
| | - Nikki Barrington
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Therapeutics, Rosalind Franklin University, North Chicago, Illinois 60064.,School of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, Rosalind Franklin University, North Chicago, Illinois 60064.,Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University, North Chicago, Illinois 60064
| | - Grace E Stutzmann
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Therapeutics, Rosalind Franklin University, North Chicago, Illinois 60064.,School of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, Rosalind Franklin University, North Chicago, Illinois 60064.,Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University, North Chicago, Illinois 60064
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12
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Kim HN, Seo BR, Kim H, Koh JY. Cilostazol restores autophagy flux in bafilomycin A1-treated, cultured cortical astrocytes through lysosomal reacidification: roles of PKA, zinc and metallothionein 3. Sci Rep 2020; 10:9175. [PMID: 32514052 PMCID: PMC7280249 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-66292-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cilostazol, a phosphodiesterase 3 inhibitor, reduces the amyloid-beta (Aβ) burden in mouse models of Alzheimer disease by as yet unidentified mechanisms. In the present study, we examined the possibility that cilostazol ameliorates lysosomal dysfunction. Astrocytes treated with bafilomycin A1 (BafA1) exhibited markedly reduced DND-189 and acridine orange (AO) fluorescence, indicating reduced lysosomal acidity. In both cases, BafA1-induced alkalization was reversed by addition of cilostazol, dibutyryl cAMP or forskolin. All three agents significantly increased free zinc levels in lysosomes, and addition of the zinc chelator TPEN abrogated lysosomal reacidification. These treatments did not raise free zinc levels or reverse BafA1-mediated lysosomal alkalization in metallothionein 3 (Mt3)-null astrocytes, indicating that the increases in zinc in astrocytes were derived mainly from Mt3. Lastly, in FITC-Aβ-treated astrocytes, cilostazol reversed lysosomal alkalization, increased cathepsin D activity, and reduced Aβ accumulation in astrocytes. Cilostazol also reduced mHtt aggregate formation in GFP-mHttQ74–expressing astrocytes. Collectively, our results present the novel finding that cAMP/PKA can overcome the v-ATPase blocking effect of BafA1 in a zinc- and Mt3-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ha Na Kim
- Neural Injury Lab, Biomedical Research Center, Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Bo-Ra Seo
- Neural Injury Lab, Biomedical Research Center, Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hyunjin Kim
- Department of Neurology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; Department of Neurology, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jae-Young Koh
- Department of Neurology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; Department of Neurology, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea. .,Neural Injury Lab, Biomedical Research Center, Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea.
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13
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Andrejew R, Glaser T, Oliveira-Giacomelli Á, Ribeiro D, Godoy M, Granato A, Ulrich H. Targeting Purinergic Signaling and Cell Therapy in Cardiovascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1201:275-353. [PMID: 31898792 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-31206-0_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular purines exert several functions in physiological and pathophysiological mechanisms. ATP acts through P2 receptors as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator and modulates heart contractility, while adenosine participates in neurotransmission, blood pressure, and many other mechanisms. Because of their capability to differentiate into mature cell types, they provide a unique therapeutic strategy for regenerating damaged tissue, such as in cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Purinergic signaling is pivotal for controlling stem cell differentiation and phenotype determination. Proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis of stem cells of various origins are regulated by purinergic receptors. In this chapter, we selected neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases with clinical trials using cell therapy and purinergic receptor targeting. We discuss these approaches as therapeutic alternatives to neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases. For instance, promising results were demonstrated in the utilization of mesenchymal stem cells and bone marrow mononuclear cells in vascular regeneration. Regarding neurodegenerative diseases, in general, P2X7 and A2A receptors mostly worsen the degenerative state. Stem cell-based therapy, mainly through mesenchymal and hematopoietic stem cells, showed promising results in improving symptoms caused by neurodegeneration. We propose that purinergic receptor activity regulation combined with stem cells could enhance proliferative and differentiation rates as well as cell engraftment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Andrejew
- Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Talita Glaser
- Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ágatha Oliveira-Giacomelli
- Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Deidiane Ribeiro
- Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mariana Godoy
- Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alessandro Granato
- Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Henning Ulrich
- Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
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14
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Tóth A, Antal Z, Bereczki D, Sperlágh B. Purinergic Signalling in Parkinson's Disease: A Multi-target System to Combat Neurodegeneration. Neurochem Res 2019; 44:2413-2422. [PMID: 31054067 PMCID: PMC6776560 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-019-02798-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons that results in characteristic motor and non-motor symptoms. L-3,4 dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) is the gold standard therapy for the treatment of PD. However, long-term use of L-DOPA leads to side effects such as dyskinesias and motor fluctuation. Since purines have neurotransmitter and co-transmitter properties, the function of the purinergic system has been thoroughly studied in the nervous system. Adenosine and adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) are modulators of dopaminergic neurotransmission, neuroinflammatory processes, oxidative stress, excitotoxicity and cell death via purinergic receptor subtypes. Aberrant purinergic receptor signalling can be either the cause or the result of numerous pathological conditions, including neurodegenerative disorders. Many data confirm the involvement of purinergic signalling pathways in PD. Modulation of purinergic receptor subtypes, the activity of ectonucleotidases and ATP transporters could be beneficial in the treatment of PD. We give a brief summary of the background of purinergic signalling focusing on its roles in PD. Possible targets for pharmacological treatment are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrián Tóth
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Balassa u. 6., Budapest, 1083, Hungary
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szigony u. 43., Budapest, 1083, Hungary
- János Szentágothai School of Neurosciences, Semmelweis University School of PhD Studies, Üllői út 26., Budapest, 1085, Hungary
| | - Zsófia Antal
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szigony u. 43., Budapest, 1083, Hungary
| | - Dániel Bereczki
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Balassa u. 6., Budapest, 1083, Hungary
| | - Beáta Sperlágh
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szigony u. 43., Budapest, 1083, Hungary.
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15
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Bartels M, Weckbecker D, Kuhn PH, Ryazanov S, Leonov A, Griesinger C, Lichtenthaler SF, Bötzel K, Giese A. Iron-mediated aggregation and toxicity in a novel neuronal cell culture model with inducible alpha-synuclein expression. Sci Rep 2019; 9:9100. [PMID: 31235814 PMCID: PMC6591385 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-45298-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) represents an increasing problem in society. The oligomerization of alpha-synuclein (αSyn) is a suggested key event in its pathogenesis, yet the pathological modes of action remain to be fully elucidated. To identify potential disease-modifying therapeutics and to study αSyn-mediated toxic mechanisms, we established cell lines with inducible overexpression of different αSyn constructs: αSyn, αSyn coupled to the fluorescence protein Venus (αSyn-Venus), and αSyn coupled to the N-terminal or C-terminal part of Venus (V1S and SV2, respectively) for a bimolecular fluorescence complementation assay (BiFC). Inducibility was achieved by applying modified GAL4-UAS or Cre-loxP systems and addition of tebufenozide or 4-OH-tamoxifen, respectively. Expression constructs were stably integrated into the host genome of H4 neuroglioma cells by lentiviral transduction. We here demonstrate a detailed investigation of the expression characteristics of inducible H4 cells showing low background expression and high inducibility. We observed increased protein load and aggregation of αSyn upon incubation with DMSO and FeCl3 along with an increase in cytotoxicity. In summary, we present a system for the creation of inducibly αSyn-overexpressing cell lines holding high potential for the screening for modulators of αSyn aggregation and αSyn-mediated toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Bartels
- Center for Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany.,Department of Neurology, Klinikum der Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Peer-Hendrik Kuhn
- Institute of Pathology, TUM School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Sergey Ryazanov
- Center for Nanoscale Microscopy and Molecular Physiology of the Brain, Georg-August-University Göttingen, 37073, Göttingen, Germany.,Department of NMR-based Structural Biology, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Andrei Leonov
- MODAG GmbH, Wendelsheim, Germany.,Center for Nanoscale Microscopy and Molecular Physiology of the Brain, Georg-August-University Göttingen, 37073, Göttingen, Germany.,Department of NMR-based Structural Biology, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christian Griesinger
- Center for Nanoscale Microscopy and Molecular Physiology of the Brain, Georg-August-University Göttingen, 37073, Göttingen, Germany.,Department of NMR-based Structural Biology, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Stefan F Lichtenthaler
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany.,Neuroproteomics, School of Medicine, Klinikum rechts der Isar, and Institute for Advanced Science, Technical University of Munich, 81675, Munich, Germany
| | - Kai Bötzel
- Department of Neurology, Klinikum der Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Armin Giese
- Center for Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany.
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16
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Zhou LJ, Chen M, Puthiyakunnon S, He C, Xia J, He CY, Deng SQ, Peng HJ. Toxoplasma gondii ROP18 inhibits human glioblastoma cell apoptosis through a mitochondrial pathway by targeting host cell P2X1. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:284. [PMID: 31164145 PMCID: PMC6547611 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3529-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Apoptosis plays a critical role in the embryonic development, homeostasis of immune system and host defense against intracellular microbial pathogens. Infection by the obligate intracellular pathogen Toxoplasma gondii can both inhibit and induce host cell apoptosis; however, the parasitic factors involved remain unclear. The T. gondii virulence factor ROP18 (TgROP18) has been reported to regulate host cell apoptosis; nevertheless, results for this regulation have been rarely reported or have provided contradictory findings. Human purinergic receptor 1 (P2X1) is an ATP-gated ion channel that responds to ATP stimulation and functions in cell apoptosis mediation. The precise roles of TgROP18 in T. gondii pathogenesis, and the relationship between TgROP18 and host P2X1 in host cell apoptosis are yet to be revealed. Methods Apoptosis rates were determined by flow cytometry (FCM) and TUNEL assay. The interaction between TgROP18 and the host P2X1 was measured by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) assay. Calcium influx and mitochondrial membrane depolarization were determined by FCM after JC-1 staining. The translocation of cytochrome C (Cyt C), Bax and Bcl2 proteins, expression of the apoptotic proteins PARP and caspase activation were detected by western blotting. Results The apoptosis rates of glial or immune cells (human SF268, mouse RAW264.7 and human THP-1 cells) infected by any T. gondii strain (RH-type I, ME49-type II and VEG-type III) were significantly inhibited compared with their uninfected controls. TgROP18 inhibited ATP-induced apoptosis of SF268 with P2X1 expression, but had no effect on RAW264.7 or THP-1 cells without detectable P2X1 expression. It was further identified that TgROP18 interacted with P2X1, and overexpression of ROP18 in COS7 cells significantly inhibited cell apoptosis mediated by P2X1. Moreover, TgROP18 also inhibited P2X1-mediated Ca2+ influx, translocation of cytochrome C from the mitochondria to the cytosol, and ATP-triggered caspase activation. Conclusions Toxoplasma gondii infection inhibits ATP-induced host cell apoptosis, regardless of strain virulence and host cell lines. TgROP18 targets the purinergic receptor P2X1 of the SF268 human neural cells and inhibits ATP-induced apoptosis through the mitochondrial pathway, suggesting a sensor role for the host proapoptotic protein P2X1 in this process. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-019-3529-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Juan Zhou
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Min Chen
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Santhosh Puthiyakunnon
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Cheng He
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Xia
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Cynthia Y He
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Sheng-Qun Deng
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong-Juan Peng
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, People's Republic of China.
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17
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Oliveira-Giacomelli Á, Naaldijk Y, Sardá-Arroyo L, Gonçalves MCB, Corrêa-Velloso J, Pillat MM, de Souza HDN, Ulrich H. Purinergic Receptors in Neurological Diseases With Motor Symptoms: Targets for Therapy. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:325. [PMID: 29692728 PMCID: PMC5902708 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Since proving adenosine triphosphate (ATP) functions as a neurotransmitter in neuron/glia interactions, the purinergic system has been more intensely studied within the scope of the central nervous system. In neurological disorders with associated motor symptoms, including Parkinson's disease (PD), motor neuron diseases (MND), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's Disease (HD), restless leg syndrome (RLS), and ataxias, alterations in purinergic receptor expression and activity have been noted, indicating a potential role for this system in disease etiology and progression. In neurodegenerative conditions, neural cell death provokes extensive ATP release and alters calcium signaling through purinergic receptor modulation. Consequently, neuroinflammatory responses, excitotoxicity and apoptosis are directly or indirectly induced. This review analyzes currently available data, which suggests involvement of the purinergic system in neuro-associated motor dysfunctions and underlying mechanisms. Possible targets for pharmacological interventions are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yahaira Naaldijk
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Laura Sardá-Arroyo
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria C. B. Gonçalves
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Medical School, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana Corrêa-Velloso
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Micheli M. Pillat
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Héllio D. N. de Souza
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Henning Ulrich
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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18
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Burnstock G. Purinergic Signalling: Therapeutic Developments. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:661. [PMID: 28993732 PMCID: PMC5622197 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Purinergic signalling, i.e., the role of nucleotides as extracellular signalling molecules, was proposed in 1972. However, this concept was not well accepted until the early 1990's when receptor subtypes for purines and pyrimidines were cloned and characterised, which includes four subtypes of the P1 (adenosine) receptor, seven subtypes of P2X ion channel receptors and 8 subtypes of the P2Y G protein-coupled receptor. Early studies were largely concerned with the physiology, pharmacology and biochemistry of purinergic signalling. More recently, the focus has been on the pathophysiology and therapeutic potential. There was early recognition of the use of P1 receptor agonists for the treatment of supraventricular tachycardia and A2A receptor antagonists are promising for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Clopidogrel, a P2Y12 antagonist, is widely used for the treatment of thrombosis and stroke, blocking P2Y12 receptor-mediated platelet aggregation. Diquafosol, a long acting P2Y2 receptor agonist, is being used for the treatment of dry eye. P2X3 receptor antagonists have been developed that are orally bioavailable and stable in vivo and are currently in clinical trials for the treatment of chronic cough, bladder incontinence, visceral pain and hypertension. Antagonists to P2X7 receptors are being investigated for the treatment of inflammatory disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases. Other investigations are in progress for the use of purinergic agents for the treatment of osteoporosis, myocardial infarction, irritable bowel syndrome, epilepsy, atherosclerosis, depression, autism, diabetes, and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Burnstock
- Autonomic Neuroscience Centre, University College Medical SchoolLondon, United Kingdom
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, The University of Melbourne, MelbourneVIC, Australia
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19
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Sanjari Moghaddam H, Zare-Shahabadi A, Rahmani F, Rezaei N. Neurotransmission systems in Parkinson’s disease. Rev Neurosci 2017; 28:509-536. [DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2016-0068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
AbstractParkinson’s disease (PD) is histologically characterized by the accumulation of α-synuclein particles, known as Lewy bodies. The second most common neurodegenerative disorder, PD is widely known because of the typical motor manifestations of active tremor, rigidity, and postural instability, while several prodromal non-motor symptoms including REM sleep behavior disorders, depression, autonomic disturbances, and cognitive decline are being more extensively recognized. Motor symptoms most commonly arise from synucleinopathy of nigrostriatal pathway. Glutamatergic, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic, cholinergic, serotoninergic, and endocannabinoid neurotransmission systems are not spared from the global cerebral neurodegenerative assault. Wide intrabasal and extrabasal of the basal ganglia provide enough justification to evaluate network circuits disturbance of these neurotransmission systems in PD. In this comprehensive review, English literature in PubMed, Science direct, EMBASE, and Web of Science databases were perused. Characteristics of dopaminergic and non-dopaminergic systems, disturbance of these neurotransmitter systems in the pathophysiology of PD, and their treatment applications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Sanjari Moghaddam
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children’s Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Dr Qarib St, Keshavarz Blvd, Tehran 14194, Iran
- NeuroImmunology Research Association (NIRA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran 1419783151, Iran
- Student Scientific Research Center (SSRC), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ameneh Zare-Shahabadi
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children’s Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Dr Qarib St, Keshavarz Blvd, Tehran 14194, Iran
- NeuroImmunology Research Association (NIRA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran 1419783151, Iran
- Psychiatry and Psychology Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farzaneh Rahmani
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children’s Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Dr Qarib St, Keshavarz Blvd, Tehran 14194, Iran
- NeuroImaging Network (NIN), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
| | - Nima Rezaei
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children’s Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Dr Qarib St, Keshavarz Blvd, Tehran 14194, Iran
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1419783151, Iran
- Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Boston, MA, USA
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20
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Wilkaniec A, Gąssowska M, Czapski GA, Cieślik M, Sulkowski G, Adamczyk A. P2X7 receptor-pannexin 1 interaction mediates extracellular alpha-synuclein-induced ATP release in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Purinergic Signal 2017; 13:347-361. [PMID: 28516276 PMCID: PMC5563296 DOI: 10.1007/s11302-017-9567-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormalities of alpha-synuclein (ASN), the main component of protein deposits (Lewy bodies), were observed in Parkinson’s disease (PD), dementia with Lewy bodies, Alzheimer’s disease, and other neurodegenerative disorders. These alterations include increase in the levels of soluble ASN oligomers in the extracellular space. Numerous works have identified several mechanisms of their toxicity, including stimulation of the microglial P2X7 receptor leading to oxidative stress. While the significant role of purinergic signaling—particularly, P2 family receptors—in neurodegenerative disorders is well known, the interaction of extracellular soluble ASN with neuronal purinergic receptors is yet to be studied. Therefore, in this study, we have investigated the effect of ASN on P2 purinergic receptors and ATP-dependent signaling. We used neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell line and rat synaptoneurosomes treated with exogenous soluble ASN. The experiments were performed using spectrofluorometric, radiochemical, and immunochemical methods. We found the following: (i) ASN-induced intracellular free calcium mobilization in neuronal cells and nerve endings depends on the activation of purinergic P2X7 receptors; (ii) activation of P2X7 receptors leads to pannexin 1 recruitment to form an active complex responsible for ATP release; and (iii) ASN greatly decreases the activity of extracellular ecto-ATPase responsible for ATP degradation. Thus, it is concluded that purinergic receptors might be putative pharmacological targets in the molecular mechanism of extracellular ASN toxicity. Interference with P2X7 signaling seems to be a promising strategy for the prevention or therapy of PD and other neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Wilkaniec
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Magdalena Gąssowska
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Grzegorz A Czapski
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Cieślik
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Sulkowski
- Department of Neurochemistry, Laboratory of Pathoneurochemistry, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agata Adamczyk
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
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21
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Sterile Neuroinflammation and Strategies for Therapeutic Intervention. Int J Inflam 2017; 2017:8385961. [PMID: 28127491 PMCID: PMC5239986 DOI: 10.1155/2017/8385961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sterile neuroinflammation is essential for the proper brain development and tissue repair. However, uncontrolled neuroinflammation plays a major role in the pathogenesis of various disease processes. The endogenous intracellular molecules so called damage-associated molecular patterns or alarmins or damage signals that are released by activated or necrotic cells are thought to play a crucial role in initiating an immune response. Sterile inflammatory response that occurs in Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), stroke, hemorrhage, epilepsy, or traumatic brain injury (TBI) creates a vicious cycle of unrestrained inflammation, driving progressive neurodegeneration. Neuroinflammation is a key mechanism in the progression (e.g., AD and PD) or secondary injury development (e.g., stroke, hemorrhage, stress, and TBI) of multiple brain conditions. Hence, it provides an opportunity for the therapeutic intervention to prevent progressive tissue damage and loss of function. The key for developing anti-neuroinflammatory treatment is to minimize the detrimental and neurotoxic effects of inflammation while promoting the beneficial and neurotropic effects, thereby creating ideal conditions for regeneration and repair. This review outlines how inflammation is involved in the pathogenesis of major nonpathogenic neuroinflammatory conditions and discusses the complex response of glial cells to damage signals. In addition, emerging experimental anti-neuroinflammatory drug treatment strategies are discussed.
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22
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Jiang P, Gan M, Yen SH, Moussaud S, McLean PJ, Dickson DW. Proaggregant nuclear factor(s) trigger rapid formation of α-synuclein aggregates in apoptotic neurons. Acta Neuropathol 2016; 132:77-91. [PMID: 26839082 PMCID: PMC4911378 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-016-1542-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2015] [Revised: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cell-to-cell transmission of α-synuclein (αS) aggregates has been proposed to be responsible for progressive αS pathology in Parkinson disease (PD) and related disorders, including dementia with Lewy bodies. In support of this concept, a growing body of in vitro and in vivo experimental evidence shows that exogenously introduced αS aggregates can spread into surrounding cells and trigger PD-like pathology. It remains to be determined what factor(s) lead to initiation of αS aggregation that is capable of seeding subsequent propagation. In this study we demonstrate that filamentous αS aggregates form in neurons in response to apoptosis induced by staurosporine or other toxins-6-hydroxy-dopamine and 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+). Interaction between αS and proaggregant nuclear factor(s) is associated with disruption of nuclear envelope integrity. Knocking down a key nuclear envelop constituent protein, lamin B1, enhances αS aggregation. Moreover, in vitro and in vivo experimental models demonstrate that aggregates released upon cell breakdown can be taken up by surrounding cells. Accordingly, we suggest that at least some αS aggregation might be related to neuronal apoptosis or loss of nuclear membrane integrity, exposing cytosolic α-synuclein to proaggregant nuclear factors. These findings provide new clues to the pathogenesis of PD and related disorders that can lead to novel treatments of these disorders. Specifically, finding ways to limit the effects of apoptosis on αS aggregation, deposition, local uptake and subsequent propagation might significantly impact progression of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peizhou Jiang
- Neuropathology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Ming Gan
- Neuropathology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Shu-Hui Yen
- Neuropathology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Simon Moussaud
- Neuropathology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Pamela J McLean
- Neuropathology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Dennis W Dickson
- Neuropathology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA.
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Abstract
Lysosomes have emerged in the last decade as an immensely important intracellular site of Ca2+ storage and signalling. More recently there has been an increase in the number of new ion channels found to be functional on lysosomes and the potential roles that these signalling pathways might play in fundamental cellular processes are being uncovered. Defects in lysosomal function have been shown to result in changes in lysosomal Ca2+ homeostasis and ultimately can result in cell death. Several neurodegenerative diseases, from rare lysosomal storage diseases through to more common diseases of ageing, have recently been identified as having alterations in lysosomal Ca2+ homeostasis that may play an important role in neuronal excitotoxicity and ultimately cell death. This review will critically summarise these recent findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emyr Lloyd-Evans
- School of Biosciences, Sir Martin Evans Building, Cardiff University, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3AX
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24
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Westbroek W, Nguyen M, Siebert M, Lindstrom T, Burnett RA, Aflaki E, Jung O, Tamargo R, Rodriguez-Gil JL, Acosta W, Hendrix A, Behre B, Tayebi N, Fujiwara H, Sidhu R, Renvoise B, Ginns EI, Dutra A, Pak E, Cramer C, Ory DS, Pavan WJ, Sidransky E. A new glucocerebrosidase-deficient neuronal cell model provides a tool to probe pathophysiology and therapeutics for Gaucher disease. Dis Model Mech 2016; 9:769-78. [PMID: 27482815 PMCID: PMC4958308 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.024588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocerebrosidase is a lysosomal hydrolase involved in the breakdown of glucosylceramide. Gaucher disease, a recessive lysosomal storage disorder, is caused by mutations in the gene GBA1. Dysfunctional glucocerebrosidase leads to accumulation of glucosylceramide and glycosylsphingosine in various cell types and organs. Mutations in GBA1 are also a common genetic risk factor for Parkinson disease and related synucleinopathies. In recent years, research on the pathophysiology of Gaucher disease, the molecular link between Gaucher and Parkinson disease, and novel therapeutics, have accelerated the need for relevant cell models with GBA1 mutations. Although induced pluripotent stem cells, primary rodent neurons, and transfected neuroblastoma cell lines have been used to study the effect of glucocerebrosidase deficiency on neuronal function, these models have limitations because of challenges in culturing and propagating the cells, low yield, and the introduction of exogenous mutant GBA1. To address some of these difficulties, we established a high yield, easy-to-culture mouse neuronal cell model with nearly complete glucocerebrosidase deficiency representative of Gaucher disease. We successfully immortalized cortical neurons from embryonic null allele gba−/− mice and the control littermate (gba+/+) by infecting differentiated primary cortical neurons in culture with an EF1α-SV40T lentivirus. Immortalized gba−/− neurons lack glucocerebrosidase protein and enzyme activity, and exhibit a dramatic increase in glucosylceramide and glucosylsphingosine accumulation, enlarged lysosomes, and an impaired ATP-dependent calcium-influx response; these phenotypical characteristics were absent in gba+/+ neurons. This null allele gba−/− mouse neuronal model provides a much-needed tool to study the pathophysiology of Gaucher disease and to evaluate new therapies. Summary: This work describes the generation of a novel immortalized glucocerebrosidase-deficient neuronal cell model with utility for pathophysiology research and therapeutic development in Gaucher disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy Westbroek
- Section on Molecular Neurogenetics, Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Matthew Nguyen
- Section on Molecular Neurogenetics, Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Marina Siebert
- Section on Molecular Neurogenetics, Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA Postgraduate Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS 91501-970, Brazil
| | - Taylor Lindstrom
- Section on Molecular Neurogenetics, Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Robert A Burnett
- Section on Molecular Neurogenetics, Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Elma Aflaki
- Section on Molecular Neurogenetics, Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Olive Jung
- Section on Molecular Neurogenetics, Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Rafael Tamargo
- Section on Molecular Neurogenetics, Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jorge L Rodriguez-Gil
- Genomics, Development, and Disease Section, Genetic Disease Research Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | | | - An Hendrix
- Laboratory of Experimental Cancer Research, Department of Radiation Oncology and Experimental Cancer Research, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent 9000, Belgium
| | - Bahafta Behre
- Section on Molecular Neurogenetics, Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Nahid Tayebi
- Section on Molecular Neurogenetics, Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Hideji Fujiwara
- Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110-1093, USA
| | - Rohini Sidhu
- Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110-1093, USA
| | - Benoit Renvoise
- Cell Biology Section, Neurogenetics Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Edward I Ginns
- Lysosomal Disorders Treatment and Research Program, Clinical Labs, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Amalia Dutra
- Cytogenetics Core, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Evgenia Pak
- Cytogenetics Core, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | | | - Daniel S Ory
- Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110-1093, USA
| | - William J Pavan
- Genomics, Development, and Disease Section, Genetic Disease Research Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Ellen Sidransky
- Section on Molecular Neurogenetics, Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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25
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Mittal R, Chan B, Grati M, Mittal J, Patel K, Debs LH, Patel AP, Yan D, Chapagain P, Liu XZ. Molecular Structure and Regulation of P2X Receptors With a Special Emphasis on the Role of P2X2 in the Auditory System. J Cell Physiol 2015; 231:1656-70. [PMID: 26627116 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.25274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The P2X purinergic receptors are cation-selective channels gated by extracellular adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP). These purinergic receptors are found in virtually all mammalian cell types and facilitate a number of important physiological processes. Within the past few years, the characterization of crystal structures of the zebrafish P2X4 receptor in its closed and open states has provided critical insights into the mechanisms of ligand binding and channel activation. Understanding of this gating mechanism has facilitated to design and interpret new modeling and structure-function experiments to better elucidate how different agonists and antagonists can affect the receptor with differing levels of potency. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the structure, activation, allosteric modulators, function, and location of the different P2X receptors. Moreover, an emphasis on the P2X2 receptors has been placed in respect to its role in the auditory system. In particular, the discovery of three missense mutations in P2X2 receptors could become important areas of study in the field of gene therapy to treat progressive and noise-induced hearing loss. J. Cell. Physiol. 231: 1656-1670, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Mittal
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Brandon Chan
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - M'hamed Grati
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Jeenu Mittal
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Kunal Patel
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Luca H Debs
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Amit P Patel
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Denise Yan
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Prem Chapagain
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, Florida.,Biomolecular Science Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida
| | - Xue Zhong Liu
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida.,Department of Human Genetics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida.,Department of Biochemistry, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
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26
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Navarro G, Borroto-Escuela DO, Fuxe K, Franco R. Purinergic signaling in Parkinson's disease. Relevance for treatment. Neuropharmacology 2015. [PMID: 26211977 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Purinergic signaling modulates dopaminergic neurotransmission in health and disease. Classically adenosine A1 and A2A receptors have been considered key for the fine tune control of dopamine actions in the striatum, the main CNS motor control center. The main adenosine signaling mechanism is via the cAMP pathway but the future will tell whether calcium signaling is relevant in adenosinergic control of striatal function. Very relevant is the recent approval in Japan of the adenosine A2A receptor antagonist, istradefylline, for use in Parkinson's disease patients. Purine nucleotides are also regulators of striatal dopamine neurotransmission via P2 purinergic receptors. In parallel to the alpha-synuclein hypothesis of Parkinson's disease etiology, purinergic P2X1 receptors have been identified as mediators of accumulation of the Lewy-body enriched protein alpha-synuclein. Of note is the expression in striatum of purinergic-receptor-containing heteromers that are potential targets of anti-Parkinson's disease therapies and should be taken into account in drug discovery programs. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Purines in Neurodegeneration and Neuroregeneration'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Navarro
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación en Red, Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Dasiel O Borroto-Escuela
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Earth, Life and Environmental Sciences, Section of Physiology, Campus Scientifico Enrico Mattei, University of Urbino, Urbino, Italy.
| | - Kjell Fuxe
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Rafael Franco
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación en Red, Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
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27
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Sáez-Orellana F, Godoy PA, Silva-Grecchi T, Barra KM, Fuentealba J. Modulation of the neuronal network activity by P2X receptors and their involvement in neurological disorders. Pharmacol Res 2015; 101:109-15. [PMID: 26122853 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2015.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Revised: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
ATP is a key energetic molecule, fundamental to cell function, which also has an important role in the extracellular milieu as a signaling molecule, acting as a chemoattractant for immune cells and as a neuro- and gliotransmitter. The ionotropic P2X receptors are members of an ATP-gated ion channels family. These ionotropic receptors are widely expressed through the body, with 7 subunits described in mammals, which are arranged in a trimeric configuration with a central pore permeable mainly to Ca(2+) and Na(+). All 7 subunits are expressed in different brain areas, being present in neurons and glia. ATP, through these ionotropic receptors, can act as a neuromodulator, facilitating the Ca(2+)-dependent release of neurotransmitters, inducing the cross-inhibition between P2XR and GABA receptors, and exercising by this way a modulation of synaptic plasticity. Growing evidence shows that P2XR play an important role in neuronal disorders and neurodegenerative diseases, like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease; this role involves changes on P2XR expression levels, activation of key pathways like GSK3β, APP processing, oxidative stress and inflammatory response. This review is focused on the neuromodulatory function of P2XR on pathophysiological conditions of the brain; the recent evidence could open a window to a new therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Sáez-Orellana
- Screening of Neuroactive Compounds Unit, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Chile
| | - P A Godoy
- Screening of Neuroactive Compounds Unit, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Chile
| | - T Silva-Grecchi
- Screening of Neuroactive Compounds Unit, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Chile
| | - K M Barra
- Screening of Neuroactive Compounds Unit, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Chile
| | - J Fuentealba
- Screening of Neuroactive Compounds Unit, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Chile; Center for Advanced Research on Biomedicine (CIAB-UdeC), University of Concepción, Chile.
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