Defining the role of anti- and pro-inflammatory outcomes of Interleukin-6 in mental health

Ikigai is associated with lower incidence of frailty during a 5-year follow-up in older women: The possible role of interleukin-6

PURPOSE

Ikigai, a psychological concept in Japanese culture representing a life worth living, contributes to health outcomes. This study examined the association between Ikigai and the incidence of frailty and sought to investigate the underlying biological mechanism by exploring inflammatory cytokines.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the 2016 Kashiwa Cohort Study, 832 community-dwelling older adults without frailty were enrolled. Participants reported their Ikigai status at baseline. Frailty was defined as meeting three of Fried's five phenotypic criteria. Plasma concentrations of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukins (ILs) and tumor necrosis factor α, were measured at baseline using immunoassays. Cox regression was used to analyze the association between Ikigai and new-onset frailty stratified by sex after adjusting for relevant confounders.

RESULTS

Overall, 7.1 % of 832 participants (75.8 ± 4.7 years, women 47.0 %) developed new-onset frailty during the 5-year follow-up. Older adults with Ikigai (n = 749) had better vitality and mental health and fewer depressive symptoms than those without Ikigai. In women, Ikigai was associated with a lower risk of developing frailty (a fully-adjusted hazard ratio=0.24, 95 % confidence interval: 0.08-0.73, P = 0.012). Notably, a significantly lower prevalence of exhaustion was observed in women with Ikigai (P < 0.001). A higher concentration of IL-6 was observed in women with Ikigai at baseline than in those without Ikigai who developed frailty (P = 0.036).

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that Ikigai could prevent frailty in women, which might be attributed to mitigate exhaustion. Furthermore, the biological actions of Ikigai are associated with high IL-6 levels. Our findings suggest that sex-specific frailty prevention should be considered with Ikigai.

A comprehensive review on the impact of polyphenol supplementation and exercise on depression and brain function parameters

The objective of this review study is to examine the combined antidepressant effects of exercise and polyphenol supplementation, with a focus on specific polyphenolic compounds such as crocin, curcumin, and quercetin, as well as different forms of physical exercise, including aerobic and resistance training. The research examines how these interventions influence depressive-like behaviors, cognitive function, and neurochemical markers in animal models and human participants. The findings demonstrate that both exercise and polyphenols independently contribute to mood enhancement, reduced anxiety, and improved cognitive function through mechanisms such as neurogenesis, neurotransmitter modulation, and anti-inflammatory effects. Notably, the combined interventions showed a synergistic effect, providing more significant benefits in reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety, enhancing cognitive performance, and supporting overall mental well-being. These results suggest that integrating exercise and polyphenol supplementation could be a promising non-pharmacological approach to managing depression and related disorders.

Mini review of molecules involved in altered postnatal neurogenesis in autism

The neurobiology of autism is complex, but emerging research points to potential abnormalities and alterations in neurogenesis. The aim of the present review is to describe the advances in the understanding of the role of selected neurotrophins, neuropeptides, and other compounds secreted by neuronal cells in the processes of postnatal neurogenesis in conjunction with autism. We characterize the fundamental mechanisms of neuronal cell proliferation, generation of major neuronal cell types with special emphasis on neurogenic niches - the subventricular zone and hippocampal areas. We also discuss changes in intracellular calcium levels and calcium-dependent transcription factors in the context of the regulation of neurogenesis and cell fate determination. To sum up, this review provides specific insight into the known association between alterations in the function of the entire spectrum of molecules involved in neurogenesis and the etiology of autism pathogenesis.

The Neuroimmune System and the Cerebellum

The recognition that there is an innate immune system of the brain, referred to as the neuroimmune system, that preforms many functions comparable to that of the peripheral immune system is a relatively new concept and much is yet to be learned. The main cellular components of the neuroimmune system are the glial cells of the brain, primarily microglia and astrocytes. These cell types preform many functions through secretion of signaling factors initially known as immune factors but referred to as neuroimmune factors when produced by cells of the brain. The immune functions of glial cells play critical roles in the healthy brain to maintain homeostasis that is essential for normal brain function, to establish cytoarchitecture of the brain during development, and, in pathological conditions, to minimize the detrimental effects of disease and injury and promote repair of brain structure and function. However, dysregulation of this system can occur resulting in actions that exacerbate or perpetuate the detrimental effects of disease or injury. The neuroimmune system extends throughout all brain regions, but attention to the cerebellar system has lagged that of other brain regions and information is limited on this topic. This article is meant to provide a brief introduction to the cellular and molecular components of the brain immune system, its functions, and what is known about its role in the cerebellum. The majority of this information comes from studies of animal models and pathological conditions, where upregulation of the system facilitates investigation of its actions.

Correlation of biochemical markers and inflammatory cytokines in autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

INTRODUCTION

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a disorder that severely affects neurodevelopment, and its underlying causes are not yet entirely understood. Research suggests that there may be a connection between the occurrence of ASD and changes in immune responses. This study aims to know if some biochemical and inflammatory cytokines are promising biomarkers for ASD and whether they are involved in the pathogenesis of ASD.

METHODS

The serum levels of CRP, TNF-α, TGF-β, IL-1β, IL-10, 1 L-8, and IL-6 were measured in all of the patients (n = 22) and in the healthy (n = 12) children using ELISA method.

RESULTS

The serum concentrations of IL-10 and IL-8 were significantly lower in the ASD patients compared to the control group (p < 0.05) and there were not significant differences between CRP, TNF-α, TGF-β, IL-6 and IL-1β levels in two groups. There were positive correlations between CRP and IL-10, also CRP and IL-8, in ASD group. In contrast to the ASD patients, the correlations of IL-8, IL-10, and CRP were not significant in the control group.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this study highlights the potential role of certain biochemical markers and inflammatory cytokines in ASD. Specifically, the lower levels of IL-10 and IL-8 in ASD patients, along with the significant correlations between CRP and these cytokines, suggest an altered immune response in individuals with ASD. These findings support the hypothesis that immune dysregulation may be involved in ASD pathogenesis. Further research is needed to explore these biomarkers and their mechanistic links to ASD, which could lead to improved diagnostics or therapeutic strategies.

Efficacy of pentoxifylline for the treatment of bipolar I/II patients with treatment-resistant depression: A proof-of-concept, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Immune dysregulation can play a role in depression pathophysiology, and immunological antagonists can improve depressive symptoms in treatment-resistant bipolar depression (TRD) patients according to studies.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the anti-depressant effects of the anti-inflammatory drug, pentoxifylline (PTX) in TRD bipolar I/II adult subjects.

METHODS

This 12-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial of 60 participants was conducted at Hawler Psychiatric Hospital and Private Clinic in Erbil, Iraq. Participants were confirmed as being qualified for bipolar I/II depression based on DSM-5 criteria. Data were analyzed using modified intent-to-treat analysis.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences between the two groups in Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression-17 (HAM-D-17) scores (χ2=1.9, P =.48) or a significant time × treatment interaction (χ2=7.1, P=.54). Nevertheless, a significant effect of time was observed with both groups' reduction in HAM-D-17 scores from the start to the endpoint (χ2= 2.11, P=.002). Besides, a significant time × treatment × CRP interaction was found (χ2=3.1, P=0.016), where there was more reduction in HAM-D-17 score in PTX-treated subjects with CRP> 7.1 mg/L. The response rate difference between PTX and the placebo group did not reach a significance level (χ2=0.84, p=0.43). Furthermore, serum concentrations of TNF-α, CRP, and IL-6 significantly reduced at week 12 in the PTX group (P=.007,.04, and <.001, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The current proof of concept study found that in terms of overall anti-depressant effectiveness in bipolar patients with TRD, PTX is not superior to placebo. However, it may improve depressive mood in a subpopulation of subjects with a higher pretreatment inflammatory profile.

Dysregulated mTOR networks in experimental sporadic Alzheimer's disease

Background

Beyond the signature amyloid-beta plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been shown to exhibit dysregulated metabolic signaling through insulin and insulin-like growth factor (IGF) networks that crosstalk with the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR). Its broad impact on brain structure and function suggests that mTOR is likely an important therapeutic target for AD.

Objective

This study characterizes temporal lobe (TL) mTOR signaling abnormalities in a rat model of sporadic AD neurodegeneration.

Methods

Long Evans rats were given intracerebroventricular injections of streptozotocin (ic-STZ) or saline (control), and 4 weeks later, they were administered neurobehavioral tests followed by terminal harvesting of the TLs for histopathological study and measurement of AD biomarkers, neuroinflammatory/oxidative stress markers, and total and phosphorylated insulin/IGF-1-Akt-mTOR pathway signaling molecules.

Results

Rats treated with ic-STZ exhibited significantly impaired performance on Rotarod (RR) and Morris Water Maze (MWM) tests, brain atrophy, TL and hippocampal neuronal and white matter degeneration, and elevated TL pTau, AβPP, Aβ, AChE, 4-HNE, and GAPDH and reduced ubiquitin, IL-2, IL-6, and IFN-γ immunoreactivities. In addition, ic-STZ reduced TL pY1135/1136-IGF-1R, Akt, PTEN, pS380-PTEN, pS2448-mTOR, p70S6K, pT412-p70S6K, p/T-pT412-p70S6K, p/T-Rictor, and p/T-Raptor.

Conclusion

Experimental ic-STZ-induced sporadic AD-type neurodegeneration with neurobehavioral dysfunctions associated with inhibition of mTOR signaling networks linked to energy metabolism, plasticity, and white matter integrity.

Prenatal Programming of Monocyte Chemotactic Protein-1 Signaling in Autism Susceptibility

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder that involves functional and structural defects in selective central nervous system (CNS) regions, harming the individual capability to process and respond to external stimuli, including impaired verbal and non-verbal communications. Etiological causes of ASD have not been fully clarified; however, prenatal activation of the innate immune system by external stimuli might infiltrate peripheral immune cells into the fetal CNS and activate cytokine secretion by microglia and astrocytes. For instance, genomic and postmortem histological analysis has identified proinflammatory gene signatures, microglia-related expressed genes, and neuroinflammatory markers in the brain during ASD diagnosis. Active neuroinflammation might also occur during the developmental stage, promoting the establishment of a defective brain connectome and increasing susceptibility to ASD after birth. While still under investigation, we tested the hypothesis whether the monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) signaling is prenatally programmed to favor peripheral immune cell infiltration and activate microglia into the fetal CNS, setting susceptibility to autism-like behavior. In this review, we will comprehensively provide the current understanding of the prenatal activation of MCP-1 signaling by external stimuli during the developmental stage as a new selective node to promote neuroinflammation, brain structural alterations, and behavioral defects associated to ASD diagnosis.

Association of serum interleukin-6 with negative symptoms in stable early-onset schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

Accumulating evidence suggests that the inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) contributes to the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. However, there was no study concerning the relationship between IL-6 concentrations and clinical features in the chronic phase of early-onset schizophrenia (EOS).

AIM

To investigate the relationship between serum IL-6 concentration and the clinical features of EOS.

METHODS

We measured serum IL-6 Levels from 74 patients with chronic schizophrenia, including 33 with age at onset < 21 years (EOS group) and 41 with onset ≥ 21 years in [adult-onset schizophrenia (AOS) group], and from 41 healthy controls. Symptom severities were evaluated using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS).

RESULTS

Serum IL-6 concentrations were higher in both EOS and AOS groups than healthy controls (F = 22.32, P < 0.01), but did not differ significantly between EOS and AOS groups (P > 0.05) after controlling for age, body mass index, and other covariates. Negative symptom scores were higher in the EOS group than the AOS group (F = 6.199, P = 0.015). Serum IL-6 concentrations in the EOS group were negatively correlated with both total PANSS-negative symptom score (r = -0.389, P = 0.032) and avolition/asociality subscore (r = -0.387, P = 0.026).

CONCLUSION

Patients with EOS may have more severe negative symptoms than those with adult-onset schizophrenia during the chronic phase of the illness. IL-6 signaling may regulate negative symptoms and its avolition/asociality subsymptoms among the early-onset chronic schizophrenic patients.

Investigation into effects of tocilizumab and epoetin beta in rats with experimental sciatic nerve injury model

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of tocilizumab (TCZ), epoetin beta (EPO), and their combination on nerve regeneration in a sciatic nerve injury model.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into (-) negative control, sham, TCZ, EPO ((+) positive control), and TCZ+EPO groups. The TCZ group received TCZ (8 mg/kg intraperitoneal) immediately after surgery. On day 14th, the EPO group received EPO (5000 IU/kg, intraperitoneal); the TCZ+EPO group received TCZ (8 mg/kg, intraperitoneal), EPO (5000 IU/kg, intraperitoneal), and TCZ (8 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) post-surgery. Motor and sensory functions were assessed pre and post-surgery. Lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress parameters were evaluated biochemically in the serum, and sciatic nerve tissue was evaluated histopathologically using haematoxylin-Eosin and Masson trichrome staining.

CONCLUSIONS

TCZ and EPO decreased nerve injury effects by increasing motor and sensory conduction velocities of the sciatic nerve. Biochemically, TCZ and EPO significantly increased Superoxide Dismutase, Catalase, and Glutathione peroxidase 4 levels while decreasing Lipid Peroxidation levels (p=0.001). Histopathologically, neuronal degeneration following nerve injury was decreased in the groups receiving TCZ and EPO (p=0.001). EPO and TCZ attenuate the adverse effects of nerve injury. However, the TCZ+EPO treatment favoured biochemical activities over tissue and functional activities. This has been confirmed functionally, biochemically, and histopathologically.

IL-6 Enhances the Activation of PI3K-AKT/mTOR-GSK-3β by Upregulating GRPR in Hippocampal Neurons of Autistic Mice

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological disorder associated with brain inflammation. The underlying mechanisms could be attributed to the activation of PI3K signaling in the inflamed brain of ASD. Multiple studies highlight the role of GRPR in regulating ASD like abnormal behavior and enhancing the PI3K signaling. However, the molecular mechanism by which GRPR regulates PI3K signaling in neurons of individuals with ASD is still unclear. In this study, we utilized a maternal immune activation model to investigate the effects of GRPR on PI3K signaling in the inflamed brain of ASD mice. We used HT22 cells with and without GRPR to examine the impact of GRP-GRPR on the PI3K-AKT pathway with IL-6 treatment. We analyzed a dataset of hippocampus samples from ASD mice to identify hub genes. Our results demonstrated increased expression of IL-6, GRPR, and PI3K-AKT signaling in the hippocampus of ASD mice. Additionally, we observed increased GRPR expression and PI3K-AKT/mTOR activation in HT22 cells after IL-6 treatment, but decreased expression in HT22 cells with GRPR knockdown. NetworkAnalyst identified GSK-3β as the most crucial gene in the PI3K-AKT/mTOR pathway in the hippocampus of ASD. Furthermore, we found that IL-6 upregulated the expression of GSK-3β in HT22 cells by upregulating GRP-GRPR. Our findings suggest that IL-6 can enhance the activation of PI3K-AKT/mTOR-GSK-3β in hippocampal neurons of ASD mice by upregulating GRPR.

Mecp2 knock-out astrocytes affect synaptogenesis by interleukin 6 dependent mechanisms

Synaptic abnormalities are a hallmark of several neurological diseases, and clarification of the underlying mechanisms represents a crucial step toward the development of therapeutic strategies. Rett syndrome (RTT) is a rare neurodevelopmental disorder, mainly affecting females, caused by mutations in the X-linked methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MECP2) gene, leading to a deep derangement of synaptic connectivity. Although initial studies supported the exclusive involvement of neurons, recent data have highlighted the pivotal contribution of astrocytes in RTT pathogenesis through non-cell autonomous mechanisms. Since astrocytes regulate synapse formation and functionality by releasing multiple molecules, we investigated the influence of soluble factors secreted by Mecp2 knock-out (KO) astrocytes on synapses. We found that Mecp2 deficiency in astrocytes negatively affects their ability to support synaptogenesis by releasing synaptotoxic molecules. Notably, neuronal inputs from a dysfunctional astrocyte-neuron crosstalk lead KO astrocytes to aberrantly express IL-6, and blocking IL-6 activity prevents synaptic alterations.

Resveratrol Activates Antioxidant Protective Mechanisms in Cellular Models of Alzheimer's Disease Inflammation

Resveratrol is a natural phenolic compound with known benefits against neurodegeneration. We analyzed in vitro the protective mechanisms of resveratrol against the proinflammatory monomeric C-reactive protein (mCRP). mCRP increases the risk of AD after stroke and we previously demonstrated that intracerebral mCRP induces AD-like dementia in mice. Here, we used BV2 microglia treated with mCRP for 24 h in the presence or absence of resveratrol. Cells and conditioned media were collected for analysis. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has also been implicated in AD progression and so LPS was used as a resveratrol-sensitive reference agent. mCRP at the concentration of 50 µg/mL activated the nitric oxide pathway and the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. Furthermore, mCRP induced cyclooxygenase-2 and the release of proinflammatory cytokines. Resveratrol effectively inhibited these changes and increased the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes Cat and Sod2. As central mechanisms of defense, resveratrol activated the hub genes Sirt1 and Nfe2l2 and inhibited the nuclear translocation of the signal transducer NF-ĸB. Proinflammatory changes induced by mCRP in primary mixed glial cultures were also protected by resveratrol. This work provides a mechanistic insight into the protective benefits of resveratrol in preventing the risk of AD induced by proinflammatory agents.

Bystander activation of microglia by Brucella abortus-infected astrocytes induces neuronal death via IL-6 trans-signaling

Inflammation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of neurobrucellosis where glial cell interactions are at the root of this pathological condition. In this study, we present evidence indicating that soluble factors secreted by Brucella abortus-infected astrocytes activate microglia to induce neuronal death. Culture supernatants (SN) from B. abortus-infected astrocytes induce the release of pro-inflammatory mediators and the increase of the microglial phagocytic capacity, which are two key features in the execution of live neurons by primary phagocytosis, a recently described mechanism whereby B. abortus-activated microglia kills neurons by phagocytosing them. IL-6 neutralization completely abrogates neuronal loss. IL-6 is solely involved in increasing the phagocytic capacity of activated microglia as induced by SN from B. abortus-infected astrocytes and does not participate in their inflammatory activation. Both autocrine microglia-derived and paracrine astrocyte-secreted IL-6 endow microglial cells with up-regulated phagocytic capacity that allows them to phagocytose neurons. Blocking of IL-6 signaling by soluble gp130 abrogates microglial phagocytosis and concomitant neuronal death, indicating that IL-6 activates microglia via trans-signaling. Altogether, these results demonstrate that soluble factors secreted by B. abortus-infected astrocytes activate microglia to induce, via IL-6 trans-signaling, the death of neurons. IL-6 signaling inhibition may thus be considered a strategy to control inflammation and CNS damage in neurobrucellosis.

Microglia and Systemic Immunity

Microglia are specialized immune cells that reside in the central nervous system (CNS) and play a crucial role in maintaining the homeostasis of the brain microenvironment. While traditionally regarded as a part of the innate immune system, recent research has highlighted their role in adaptive immunity. The CNS is no longer considered an immune-privileged organ, and increasing evidence suggests bidirectional communication between the immune system and the CNS. Microglia are sensitive to systemic immune signals and can respond to systemic inflammation by producing various inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. This response is mediated by activating pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which recognize pathogen- and danger-associated molecular patterns in the systemic circulation. The microglial response to systemic inflammation has been implicated in several neurological conditions, including depression, anxiety, and cognitive impairment. Understanding the complex interplay between microglia and systemic immunity is crucial for developing therapeutic interventions to modulate immune responses in the CNS.

Serum Interleukin-6 in Schizophrenia: Associations with Clinical and Sociodemographic Characteristics

BACKGROUND

Recently a significant part of schizophrenia studies have been focused on the role of cytokines, especially interleukin-6 (IL-6). Some authors have suggested a pathogenetic role for IL-6 in schizophrenia and concluded that therapy that centers on suppressing IL-6 activity may prove beneficial for certain categories of patients with the disorder. However, many questions about whether the changes in IL-6 levels in schizophrenia are primary, related to symptoms or caused by therapy, are concomitant metabolic disorders, are related to smoking or other secondary factors remain unanswered.

AIM

To assess the level of serum IL-6 in patients with schizophrenia in comparison with healthy controls, as well as to study its association with clinical and socio-demographic characteristics.

METHODS

Some 125 patients with schizophrenia and 95 healthy volunteers were examined. The evaluation of IL-6 was performed by enzyme immunoassay. All patients were assessed using standardized psychometric instruments. Information from patient medical records on the course of the disease and treatment was analyzed.

RESULTS

The level of IL-6 was significantly higher in the patients than in the healthy volunteers (z=2.58; p=0.0099), but among men the difference between the patients and volunteers was not significant. Statistically significant correlations were found between the level of serum IL-6 and the severity of the cognitive impairment of patients: (auditory [ρ=-0.31; p=0.00063] and working memory [ρ=-0.25; p=0.0065], hand-eye coordination [ρ=-0.29; p=0.0011], verbal fluency [ρ=-0.28; p=0.0019] and problem-solving capacity [ρ=-0.22; p=0.013]), total severity of schizophrenia symptoms (PANSS, ρ=0.22; p=0.016), PANSS positive subscale (ρ=0.18; p=0.048), and the age of manifestation (ρ=0.20; p=0.025) and disease duration (ρ=0.18; p=0.043). The level of IL-6 was the lowest in patients treated with third-generation antipsychotics, and the highest in those treated with first-generation antipsychotics (H=6.36; p=0.042). Moreover, in hospital patients, the level of IL-6 was significantly higher than in outpatients and inpatients hospitals (H=18.59; p=0.0001).

CONCLUSION

The study confirmed that there are associations between the serum IL-6 level and schizophrenia, the age of the patient, duration of the disease and how late in one's life cycle it began manifesting itself, as well as a number of clinical characteristics. Considering that IL-6 is associated with a wide range of symptoms that are loosely controlled by antipsychotics, this biochemical marker needs to be studied to look into how closely its level tracks with an unfavorable course of schizophrenia. That would require further prospective studies.

Effects of Health-Promoting Lifestyle on Late-Onset Depression in Older Adults: Mediating Effect of Meaning in Life and Interleukin-6 (IL-6)

Purpose

Late-onset depression (LOD) with poor treatment response has high incidence and mortality in the China's aged people, this study aims to explore the correlation between health-promoting lifestyle, meaning in life, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and LOD for providing scientific basis of LOD prevention and rehabilitation.

Patients and Methods

A total of 496 LOD patients (study group) and healthy older adults (control group) were enrolled and investigated by using the Health-promoting lifestyle Profile-II, revised (HPLP-IIR), Meaning in Life Questionnaire-Chinese Version (MLQ-C), and Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD). The interleukin-6 (IL-6) in the circulating blood was detected by utilizing ELISA kit.

Results

The results showed that the scores of all factors in HPLP-IIR and MLQ were significantly lower and IL-6 level was higher in the study group than the control group. Scores of most factors in HPLP-IIR and MLQ negatively and IL-6 positively correlated with scores of subscales and total HAMD score. Meaning in life and IL-6 partially mediated the relationship between health-promoting lifestyles and depression severity in the study group, with the mediating effect explains 15.76% and 22.64% of the total effect, respectively.

Conclusion

Health-promoting lifestyles, meaning in life, and IL-6 are predictors of LOD, and an unhealthy lifestyle could induce LOD through the mediating effect of meaning in life and IL-6 in older adults.

Neuroprotective astroglial response to neural damage and its relevance to affective disorders

Astrocytes not only support neuronal function with essential roles in synaptic neurotransmission, action potential propagation, metabolic support, or neuroplastic and developmental adaptations. They also respond to damage or dysfunction in surrounding neurons and oligodendrocytes by releasing neurotrophic factors and other molecules that increase the survival of the supported cells or contribute to mechanisms of structural and molecular restoration. The neuroprotective responsiveness of astrocytes is based on their ability to sense signals of degeneration, metabolic jeopardy and structural damage, and on their aptitude to locally deliver specific molecules to remedy threats to the molecular and structural features of their cellular partners. To the extent that neuronal and other glial cell disturbances are known to occur in affective disorders, astrocyte responsiveness to those disturbances may help to better understand the roles astrocytes play in affective disorders. The astrocytic sensing apparatus supporting those responses involves receptors for neurotransmitters, purines, cell adhesion molecules and growth factors. Astrocytes also share with the immune system the capacity of responding to cytokines released upon neuronal damage. In addition, in responses to specific signals astrocytes release unique factors such as clusterin or humanin that have been shown to exert potent neuroprotective effects. Astrocytes integrate the signals above to further deliver structural lipids, removing toxic metabolites, stabilizing the osmotic environment, normalizing neurotransmitters, providing anti-oxidant protection, facilitating synaptogenesis and acting as barriers to contain varied deleterious signals, some of which have been described in brain regions relevant to affective disorders and related animal models. Since various of the injurious signals that activate astrocytes have been implicated in different aspects of the etiopathology of affective disorders, particularly in relation to the diagnosis of depression, potentiating the corresponding astrocyte neuroprotective responses may provide additional opportunities to improve or complement available pharmacological and behavioral therapies for affective disorders.

Role of Serum Interleukin-6, Interleukin-1β and Interleukin-10 in Assessment of Disease Activity and Nutritional Status in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are characterised by multifactorial and chronic inflammation. Much attention has been paid to immune dysfunction in inflammatory bowel diseases. The aim of this study was to assess the usefulness of serum IL-6, IL-1β and IL-10 in determining the activity and nutritional status in IBD patients. The case-control study was carried out on 82 patients with IBD; the control group consisted of 25 clinically healthy subjects. The serum concentrations of IL-6, IL-1 β and IL-10 were determined by the quantitative sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. There were no significant differences in IL-6 and IL-1β levels in UC and CD patients according to disease activity as assessed by the Montreal classification, Partial Mayo Score and CDAI. Significantly higher IL-6 levels were found in patients with low body fat in comparison to patients with normal body fat. Furthermore, significantly higher mean IL-6 levels were observed in patients with excess body fat in comparison to patients with normal body fat, and also in comparison to patients with deficient body fat. IL-6 and IL-1β may provide extra information regarding the nutritional status of IBD patients. IL-10 can be considered a non-invasive biomarker of IBD activity.

BDNF rs962369 Is Associated with Major Depressive Disorder

This study enrolled 291 patients diagnosed with depression and schizophrenia (F32, F33, and F20 according to ICD-10) and 227 ethnicity-matched control subjects. We analyzed the distribution of BDNF rs6265 and BDNF rs962369 genotypes, finding no significant associations between these and schizophrenia. We revealed a significant increase in the risk of single-episode major depression disorder (MDD) for rs962369 minor allele homozygotes (CC vs. TT+TC), an association that persisted after adjusting for age and sex (OR 3.47; 95% CI 1.36-8.85; p = 0.009). Furthermore, rs962369 genotype was significantly associated with an increased risk of recurrent MDD in a log-additive model (OR per C-allele 1.65; 95% CI 1.11-2.45; p = 0.013). A comparative analysis between MDD subtypes and between MDD subtypes and schizophrenia showed no significant differences for BDNF rs6265. Notably, the frequency of minor allele C of BDNF rs962369 varied across subgroups, with the highest frequency in patients with recurrent MDD (0.32) and the lowest in schizophrenia patients (0.20). The presence of genotypes with at least one minor allele C was significantly higher in the recurrent MDD patient group compared to the schizophrenia group. In conclusion, the BDNF rs962369 variant was associated with MDD but not with schizophrenia.

Peripheral Inflammatory Markers in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder at Adolescent Age

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are associated with immune dysregulation. We aimed to estimate the pro- and anti-inflammatory activity/balance in ASD and ADHD patients at a little-studied adolescent age with respect to sex. We evaluated 20 ASD patients (5 girls, average age: 12.4 ± 1.9 y), 20 ADHD patients (5 girls, average age: 13.4 ± 1.8 y), and 20 age- and gender-matched controls (average age: 13.2 ± 1.9 y). The evaluated parameters included (1) white blood cells (WBCs), neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, platelets, platelet distribution width (PDW), mean platelet volume, and derived ratios, as well as (2) cytokines-interferon-gamma, interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and derived profiles and ratios. ASD adolescents showed higher levels of WBC, monocytes, IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10, macrophages (M)1 profile, and anti-inflammatory profile than the controls, with ASD males showing higher monocytes, IL-6 and IL-10, anti-inflammatory profile, and a lower T-helper (Th)1/Th2+T-regulatory cell ratio than control males. The ADHD adolescents showed higher levels of PDW, IL-1β and IL-6, TNF-α, M1 profile, proinflammatory profile, and pro-/anti-inflammatory ratio than the controls, with ADHD females showing a higher TNF-α and pro-/anti-inflammatory ratio than the control females and ADHD males showing higher levels of IL-1β and IL-6, TNF-α, and M1 profile than the control males. Immune dysregulation appeared to be different for both neurodevelopmental disorders in adolescence.

Association between Sexual Activity during Pregnancy, Pre- and Early-Term Birth, and Vaginal Cytokine Inflammation: A Prospective Study of Black Women

This study aimed to investigate the association between sexual activity during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes among Black women, and to explore whether vaginal cytokine inflammation mediates this association. Data from 397 Black pregnant women through questionnaires on sexual activity and vaginal biosamples during early (8-14 weeks) and late (24-30 weeks) pregnancy, and birth outcomes were analyzed. Using a data-driven approach, the study found that vaginal sex during late pregnancy was associated with spontaneous early-term birth (sETB, 38-39 completed weeks' gestation) (OR = 0.39, 95% CI: [0.21, 0.72], p-value = 0.003) but not with spontaneous preterm birth (sPTB) (OR = 1.08, p-value = 0.86) compared to full-term birth. Overall, despite vaginal sex in late pregnancy showing an overall positive effect on sETB (total effect = -0.1580, p-value = 0.015), we observed a negative effect of vaginal sex on sETB (indirect effect = 0.0313, p-value = 0.026) due to the fact that having vaginal sex could lead to elevated IL6 levels, which in turn increased the odds of sETB. In conclusion, the study found an overall positive association between sexual activity on ETB and a negative partial mediation effect via increased vaginal cytokine inflammation induced by vaginal sexual activity. This inconsistent mediation model suggested that vaginal sexual activity is a complex behavior that could have both positive and negative effects on the birth outcome.

Inflammation and decreased cardiovagal modulation are linked to stress and depression at 36th week of pregnancy in gestational diabetes mellitus

Stress and depression have been reported in gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Though inflammation and oxidative stress are associated with depression, there are no reports of link of cardiometabolic risks (CMR) to stress and depression in GDM. Normal pregnant women (control group, n = 164) and women with GDM (study group, n = 176) at 36th week of gestation were recruited for the study. Blood pressure (BP), body composition, heart rate variability (HRV), glycated hemoglobin (HbA1C), markers of insulin resistance, oxidative stress, inflammation and endothelial dysfunction, were assessed. Perceived stress score (PSS), quality of life (QoL) scale, Indian diabetic risk score (IDRS) and Edinburg postnatal depression score (EPDS) were assessed. Association of potential contributors to PSS and EDPS were assessed by correlation and regression analyses. There was significant increase in PSS, EPDS, IDRS scores, HbA1C, malondialdehyde (MDA) (oxidative stress marker) and high-sensitive C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 (inflammatory markers), and significant decrease in total power (TP) of HRV (marker of cardiovagal modulation), QoL and nitric oxide (endothelial dysfunction marker) in study group compared to control group. Though many cardiometabolic risk parameters were correlated with PSS and EPDS, the significant independent association was observed for TP, HbA1C, MDA and interleukin-6. However, interleukin-6 had maximum contribution to PSS (β = 0.550, p < 0.001) and EPDS (β = 0.393, p < 0.001) as demonstrated by multiple regression analysis. Inflammation, oxidative stress, glycation status and decreased cardiovagal modulation are associated with stress and depression at 36th week of gestation in GDM.

The Effect of Progestins on Cytokine Production in the Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells of Menopausal Women and Their Luminol-Dependent Chemiluminescence

Steroid hormones are the key regulators of inflammatory and autoimmune processes. The role of steroid hormones is mostly inhibitory in these processes. The expression of IL-6, TNFα, and IL-1β, as markers of inflammation, and TGFβ, as a marker of fibrosis, could be useful tools to predict the response of an individual's immune system to the different progestins suitable for the treatment of menopausal inflammatory disorders, including endometriosis. In this study, the progestins P4 and MPA, as well as the novel progestin gestobutanoyl (GB), which possess potent anti-inflammatory properties towards endometriosis, were studied at a fixed concentration of 10 µM. Their influence on the production of the above cytokines in PHA-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) during 24 h incubation was evaluated by ELISA. It was found that synthetic progestins stimulated the production of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNFα and inhibited TGFβ production, while P4 inhibited IL-6 (33% inhibition) and did not influence TGFβ production. In the MTT-viability test, P4 also decreased PHA-stimulated PBMC viability by 28% during 24 h incubation, but MPA and GB did not have any inhibitory or stimulatory effects. The luminol-dependent chemiluminescence (LDC) assay revealed the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of all the tested progestins, as well as some other steroid hormones and their antagonists: cortisol, dexamethasone, testosterone, estradiol, cyproterone, and tamoxifen. Of these, tamoxifen showed the most pronounced effect on the oxidation capacity of PBMC but not on that of dexamethasone, as was expected. Collectively, these data demonstrate that PBMCs from menopausal women respond differently to P4 and synthetic progestins, most likely due to distinct actions via various steroid receptors. It is not only the progestin affinity to nuclear progesterone receptors (PR), androgen receptors, glucocorticoid receptors, or estrogen receptors that is important for the immune response, but also the membrane PR or other nongenomic structures in immune cells.

Leveraging a genetically-informative study design to explore depression as a risk factor for type 2 diabetes: Rationale and participant characteristics of the Mood and Immune Regulation in Twins Study

Background

Comorbidity between depression and type 2 diabetes is thought to arise from the joint effects of psychological, behavioral, and biological processes. Studies of monozygotic twins may provide a unique opportunity for clarifying how these processes inter-relate. This paper describes the rationale, characteristics, and initial findings of a longitudinal co-twin study aimed at examining the biopsychosocial mechanisms linking depression and risk of diabetes in mid-life.

Methods

Participants in the Mood and Immune Regulation in Twins (MIRT) Study were recruited from the Mid-Atlantic Twin Registry. MIRT consisted of 94 individuals who do not have diabetes at baseline, representing 43 twin pairs (41 monozygotic and 2 dizygotic), one set of monozygotic triplets, and 5 individuals whose co-twin did not participate. A broad set of variables were assessed including psychological factors (e.g., lifetime history major depression (MD)); social factors (e.g., stress perceptions and experiences); and biological factors, including indicators of metabolic risk (e.g., BMI, blood pressure (BP), HbA1c) and immune functioning (e.g., pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines), as well as collection of RNA. Participants were re-assessed 6-month later. Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) and descriptive comparisons were used to explore variation in these psychological, social, and biological factors across time and within pairs.

Results

Mean age was 53 years, 68% were female, and 77% identified as white. One-third had a history of MD, and 18 sibling sets were discordant for MD. MD was associated with higher systolic (139.1 vs 132.2 mmHg, p=0.05) and diastolic BP (87.2 vs. 80.8 mmHg, p=0.002) and IL-6 (1.47 vs. 0.93 pg/mL, p=0.001). MD was not associated with BMI, HbA1c, or other immune markers. While the biological characteristics of the co-twins were significantly correlated, all within-person ICCs were higher than the within-pair correlations (e.g., HbA1c within-person ICC=0.88 vs. within-pair ICC=0.49; IL-6 within-person ICC=0.64 vs. within-pair=0.54). Among the pairs discordant for MD, depression was not substantially associated with metabolic or immune markers, but was positively associated with stress.

Conclusions

Twin studies have the potential to clarify the biopsychosocial processes linking depression and diabetes, and recently completed processing of RNA samples from MIRT permits future exploration of gene expression as a potential mechanism.

Diagnostic value and mechanism of plasma S100A1 protein in acute ischemic stroke: a prospective and observational study

Background

Plasma S100A1 protein is a novel inflammatory biomarker associated with acute myocardial infarction and neurodegenerative disease's pathophysiological mechanisms. This study aimed to determine the levels of this protein in patients with acute ischemic stroke early in the disease progression and to investigate its role in the pathogenesis of acute ischemic stroke.

Methods

A total of 192 participants from hospital stroke centers were collected for the study. Clinically pertinent data were recorded. The volume of the cerebral infarction was calculated according to the Pullicino formula. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to select independent influences. ROC curve was used to analyze the diagnostic value of AIS and TIA. The correlation between S100A1, NF-κB p65, and IL-6 levels and cerebral infarction volume was detected by Pearson correlation analysis.

Results

There were statistically significant differences in S100A1, NF-κB p65, and IL-6 among the AIS,TIA, and PE groups (S100A1, [230.96 ± 39.37] vs [185.85 ± 43.24] vs [181.47 ± 27.39], P < 0.001; NF-κB p65, [3.99 ± 0.65] vs [3.58 ± 0.74] vs [3.51 ± 0.99], P = 0.001; IL-6, [13.32 ± 1.57] vs [11.61 ± 1.67] vs [11.42 ± 2.34], P < 0.001). Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that S100A1 might be an independent predictive factor for the diagnosis of disease (P < 0.001). The AUC of S100A1 for diagnosis of AIS was 0.818 (P < 0.001, 95% CI [0.749-0.887], cut off 181.03, Jmax 0.578, Se 95.0%, Sp 62.7%). The AUC of S100A1 for diagnosis of TIA was 0.720 (P = 0.001, 95% CI [0.592-0.848], cut off 150.14, Jmax 0.442, Se 50.0%, Sp 94.2%). There were statistically significant differences in S100A1, NF-κB p65, and IL-6 among the SCI,MCI, and LCI groups (S100A1, [223.98 ± 40.21] vs [225.42 ± 30.92] vs [254.25 ± 37.07], P = 0.001; NF-κB p65, [3.88 ± 0.66] vs [3.85 ± 0.64] vs [4.41 ± 0.45], P < 0.001; IL-6, [13.27 ± 1.65] vs [12.77 ± 1.31] vs [14.00 ± 1.40], P = 0.007). Plasma S100A1, NF-κB p65, and IL-6 were significantly different from cerebral infarction volume (S100A1, r = 0.259, P = 0.002; NF-κB p65, r = 0.316, P < 0.001; IL-6, r = 0.177, P = 0.036). There was a positive correlation between plasma S100A1 and IL-6 with statistical significance (R = 0.353, P < 0.001). There was no significant positive correlation between plasma S100A1 and NF-κB p65 (R < 0.3), but there was statistical significance (R = 0.290, P < 0.001). There was a positive correlation between IL-6 and NF-κB p65 with statistical significance (R = 0.313, P < 0.001).

Conclusion

S100A1 might have a better diagnostic efficacy for AIS and TIA. S100A1 was associated with infarct volume in AIS, and its level reflected the severity of acute cerebral infarction to a certain extent. There was a correlation between S100A1 and IL-6 and NF-κB p65, and it was reasonable to speculate that this protein might mediate the inflammatory response through the NF-κB pathway during the pathophysiology of AIS.

Selected Biomarkers of Depression: What Are the Effects of Cytokines and Inflammation?

Depression is one of the leading mental illnesses worldwide and lowers the quality of life of many. According to WHO, about 5% of the worldwide population suffers from depression. Newer studies report a staggering global prevalence of 27.6%, and it is rising. Professionally, depression belonging to affective disorders is a psychiatric illness, and the category of major depressive disorder (MDD) comprises various diagnoses related to persistent and disruptive mood disorders. Due to this fact, it is imperative to find a way to assess depression quantitatively using a specific biomarker or a panel of biomarkers that would be able to reflect the patients' state and the effects of therapy. Cytokines, hormones, oxidative stress markers, and neuropeptides are studied in association with depression. The latest research into inflammatory cytokines shows that their relationship with the etiology of depression is causative. There are stronger cytokine reactions to pathogens and stressors in depression. If combined with other predisposing factors, responses lead to prolonged inflammatory processes, prolonged dysregulation of various axes, stress, pain, mood changes, anxiety, and depression. This review focuses on the most recent data on cytokines as markers of depression concerning their roles in its pathogenesis, their possible use in diagnosis and management, their different levels in bodily fluids, and their similarities in animal studies. However, cytokines are not isolated from the pathophysiologic mechanisms of depression or other psychiatric disorders. Their effects are only a part of the whole pathway.

Once induced, it lasts for a long time: the structural and molecular signatures associated with depressive-like behavior after neonatal immune activation

Adverse factors such as stress or inflammation in the neonatal period can affect the development of certain brain structures and have negative delayed effects throughout the lifespan of an individual, by reducing cognitive abilities and increasing the risk of psychopathologies. One possible reason for these delayed effects is the neuroinflammation caused by neonatal immune activation (NIA). Neuroinflammation can lead to disturbances of neurotransmission and to reprogramming of astroglial and microglial brain cells; when combined, the two problems can cause changes in the cytoarchitecture of individual regions of the brain. In addition, neuroinflammation may affect the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and processes of oxidative stress, thereby resulting in higher stress reactivity. In our review, we tried to answer the questions of whether depressive-like behavior develops after NIA in rodents and what the molecular mechanisms associated with these disorders are. Most studies indicate that NIA does not induce depressive-like behavior in a steady state. Nonetheless, adult males (but not females or adolescents of both sexes) with experience of NIA exhibit marked depressive-like behavior when exposed to aversive conditions. Analyses of molecular changes have shown that NIA leads to an increase in the amount of activated microglia and astroglia in the frontal cortex and hippocampus, an increase in oxidative-stress parameters, a change in stress reactivity of the HPA axis, and an imbalance of cytokines in various regions of the brain, but not in blood plasma, thus confirming the local nature of the inflammation. Therefore, NIA causes depressive-like behavior in adult males under aversive testing conditions, which are accompanied by local inflammation and have sex- and age-specific effects.

The effects of social defeat stress on hippocampal glial cells and interleukin-6 in adolescence and adulthood

Adolescent social stress has been associated with the vulnerability to developing psychopathological disorders in adulthood that are accompanied by brain inflammatory processes. The purpose of this study is to investigate the dynamic changes of the hippocampal neuroinflammatory mediators, including microglia, astrocyte, and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels in mice experiencing social defeat stress during adolescence. Adolescent mice were divided into the control group and stress group. Mice in the stress group were exposed to chronic intermittent social defeat for a total of 12 days, and control mice were reared in normal conditions. The hippocampal microglia, astrocyte, and IL-6 levels were measured 24 h and 3 weeks after the end of stress exposure. Microglia activation characterized by increased ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 positive cell numbers or staining area in the CA1 and CA3 regions of the hippocampus were observed 24 h after the end of stress, which did not last into the adulthood. No short-term or long-term alterations of the number of hippocampal CA1 and CA3 glia fibrillary acidic protein astrocytes were found in mice experiencing adolescent social defeat, whereas IL-6 levels were only increased 3 weeks after the end of stress. These data suggested that exposure to chronic social defeat stress led to short-term and long-term neuroinflammatory changes in the hippocampus.

A molecular framework for autistic experiences: Mitochondrial allostatic load as a mediator between autism and psychopathology

Molecular autism research is evolving toward a biopsychosocial framework that is more informed by autistic experiences. In this context, research aims are moving away from correcting external autistic behaviors and toward alleviating internal distress. Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASCs) are associated with high rates of depression, suicidality and other comorbid psychopathologies, but this relationship is poorly understood. Here, we integrate emerging characterizations of internal autistic experiences within a molecular framework to yield insight into the prevalence of psychopathology in ASC. We demonstrate that descriptions of social camouflaging and autistic burnout resonate closely with the accepted definitions for early life stress (ELS) and chronic adolescent stress (CAS). We propose that social camouflaging could be considered a distinct form of CAS that contributes to allostatic overload, culminating in a pathophysiological state that is experienced as autistic burnout. Autistic burnout is thought to contribute to psychopathology via psychological and physiological mechanisms, but these remain largely unexplored by molecular researchers. Building on converging fields in molecular neuroscience, we discuss the substantial evidence implicating mitochondrial dysfunction in ASC to propose a novel role for mitochondrial allostatic load in the relationship between autism and psychopathology. An interplay between mitochondrial, neuroimmune and neuroendocrine signaling is increasingly implicated in stress-related psychopathologies, and these molecular players are also associated with neurodevelopmental, neurophysiological and neurochemical aspects of ASC. Together, this suggests an increased exposure and underlying molecular susceptibility to ELS that increases the risk of psychopathology in ASC. This article describes an integrative framework shaped by autistic experiences that highlights novel avenues for molecular research into mechanisms that directly affect the quality of life and wellbeing of autistic individuals. Moreover, this framework emphasizes the need for increased access to diagnoses, accommodations, and resources to improve mental health outcomes in autism.

Transcriptomics and miRNomics data integration in lymphoblastoid cells highlights the key role of immune-related functions in lithium treatment response in Bipolar disorder

BACKGROUND

Bipolar Disorder (BD) is a complex mental disease characterized by recurrent episodes of mania and depression. Lithium (Li) represents the mainstay of BD pharmacotherapy, despite the narrow therapeutic index and the high variability in treatment response. However, although several studies have been conducted, the molecular mechanisms underlying Li therapeutic effects remain unclear.

METHODS

In order to identify molecular signatures and biological pathways associated with Li treatment response, we conducted transcriptome and miRNome microarray analyses on lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) from 20 patients diagnosed with BD classified as Li responders (n = 11) or non-responders (n = 9).

RESULTS

We found 335 mRNAs and 77 microRNAs (miRNAs) significantly modulated in BD responders versus non-responders. Interestingly, pathway and network analyses on these differentially expressed molecules suggested a modulatory effect of Li on several immune-related functions. Indeed, among the functional molecular nodes, we found NF-κB and TNF. Moreover, networks related to these molecules resulted overall inhibited in BD responder patients, suggesting anti-inflammatory properties of Li. From the integrative analysis between transcriptomics and miRNomics data carried out using miRComb R package on the same samples from patients diagnosed with BD, we found 97 significantly and negatively correlated mRNA-miRNA pairs, mainly involved in inflammatory/immune response.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results highlight that Li exerts modulatory effects on immune-related functions and that epigenetic mechanisms, especially miRNAs, can influence the modulation of different genes and pathways involved in Li response. Moreover, our data suggest the potentiality to integrate data coming from different high-throughput approaches as a tool to prioritize genes and pathways.

Post-Injury Buprenorphine Administration Is Associated with Long-Term Region-Specific Glial Alterations in Rats

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major leading cause of death and disability. While previous studies regarding focal pathologies following TBI have been done, there is a lack of information concerning the role of analgesics and their influences on injury pathology. Buprenorphine (Bup), an opioid analgesic, is a commonly used analgesic in experimental TBI models. Our previous studies investigated the acute effects of Buprenorphine-sustained release-Lab (Bup-SR-Lab) on diffuse neuronal/glial pathology, neuroinflammation, cell damage, and systemic physiology. The current study investigated the longer-term chronic outcomes of Bup-SR-Lab treatment at 4 weeks following TBI utilizing a central fluid percussion injury (cFPI) model in adult male rats. Histological assessments of physiological changes, neuronal damage, cortical and thalamic cytokine expression, microglial and astrocyte morphological changes, and myelin alterations were done, as we had done in our acute study. In the current study the Whisker Nuisance Task (WNT) was also performed pre- and 4w post-injury to assess changes in somatosensory sensitivity following saline or Bup-SR-Lab treatment. Bup-SR-Lab treatment had no impact on overall physiology or neuronal damage at 4w post-injury regardless of region or injury, nor did it have any significant effects on somatosensory sensitivity. However, greater IL-4 cytokine expression with Bup-SR-Lab treatment was observed compared to saline treated animals. Microglia and astrocytes also demonstrated region-specific morphological alterations associated with Bup-SR-Lab treatment, in which cortical microglia and thalamic astrocytes were particularly vulnerable to Bup-mediated changes. There were discernable injury-specific and region-specific differences regarding myelin integrity and changes in specific myelin basic protein (MBP) isoform expression following Bup-SR-Lab treatment. This study indicates that use of Bup-SR-Lab could impact TBI-induced glial alterations in a region-specific manner 4w following diffuse brain injury.