Estudio del efecto del tratamiento con inmunoglobulinas por vía intravenosa en la neuromielitis óptica

Microglia/Macrophages in Autoimmune Demyelinating Encephalomyelitis (Multiple Sclerosis/Neuromyelitis Optica)

Microglia and macrophages are critical mediators of immune responses in the central nervous system. Their roles range from homeostatic maintenance to the pathogenesis of autoimmune demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. This review explores the origins of microglia and macrophages, as well as their mechanisms of activation, interactions with other neural cells, and contributions to disease progression and repair processes. It also highlights the translational relevance of insights gained from animal models and the therapeutic potential of targeting microglial and macrophage activity in multiple sclerosis and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder.

Immune-Mediated Myelopathies

OBJECTIVE

Immune-mediated myelopathies are conditions in which the immune system attacks the spinal cord. This article describes the distinguishing characteristics of immune-mediated myelopathies and treatment strategies for patients affected by these disorders.

LATEST DEVELOPMENTS

New biomarkers, such as aquaporin 4 and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies, in the blood and spinal fluid have led to the identification of antigen-specific immune-mediated myelopathies and approved therapies to prevent disease progression.

ESSENTIAL POINTS

The first step in the diagnosis of an immune-mediated myelopathy is confirming that the immune system is the cause of the attack by excluding non-immune-mediated causes. The second step is to narrow the differential diagnosis based on objective biomarkers such as serology and MRI patterns. The third step is to treat the specific immune-mediated myelopathy by using evidence-based medicine.

Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Effect of High-Dose Immunoglobulins in Children: From Approved Indications to Off-Label Use

BACKGROUND

The large-scale utilization of immunoglobulins in patients with inborn errors of immunity (IEIs) since 1952 prompted the discovery of their key role at high doses as immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory therapy, in the treatment of IEI-related immune dysregulation disorders, according to labelled and off-label indications. Recent years have been dominated by a progressive imbalance between the gradual but constant increase in the use of immunoglobulins and their availability, exacerbated by the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.

OBJECTIVES

To provide pragmatic indications for a need-based application of high-dose immunoglobulins in the pediatric context.

SOURCES

A literature search was performed using PubMed, from inception until 1st August 2023, including the following keywords: anti-inflammatory; children; high dose gammaglobulin; high dose immunoglobulin; immune dysregulation; immunomodulation; immunomodulatory; inflammation; intravenous gammaglobulin; intravenous immunoglobulin; off-label; pediatric; subcutaneous gammaglobulin; subcutaneous immunoglobulin. All article types were considered.

IMPLICATIONS

In the light of the current imbalance between gammaglobulins' demand and availability, this review advocates the urgency of a more conscious utilization of this medical product, giving indications about benefits, risks, cost-effectiveness, and administration routes of high-dose immunoglobulins in children with hematologic, neurologic, and inflammatory immune dysregulation disorders, prompting further research towards a responsible employment of gammaglobulins and improving the therapeutical decisional process.

Therapeutic Response in Pediatric Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) is a rare autoimmune condition, which can lead to significant disability, and up to 3%-5% of the cases have a pediatric onset. There are limited studies to guide physicians in disease-modifying treatment (DMT) choices for children with NMOSD.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study evaluated children with NMOSD cases followed at 12 clinics in the US Network of Pediatric MS Centers. Cases were classified as aquaporin-4 antibody positive (AQP4+) and double seronegative (DS) when negative for AQP4+ and for myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) antibody. The effect of initial DMTs including rituximab, mycophenolate, azathioprine, and IV immunoglobulin (IVIg) on the annualized relapse rate (ARR) was assessed by negative binomial regression. Time to disability progression (EDSS score increase ≥1.0 point) was modeled with a Cox proportional-hazards model.

RESULTS

A total of 91 children with NMOSD were identified: 77 AQP4+ and 14 DS (85.7% females; 43.2% White and 46.6% African American). Eighty-one patients were started on a DMT, and 10 were treatment naive at the time of the analysis. The ARR calculated in all serogroups was 0.25 (95% CI 0.13-0.49) for rituximab, 0.33 (95% CI 0.19-0.58) for mycophenolate, 0.40 (95% CI 0.13-1.24) for azathioprine, and 0.54 (95% CI 0.28-1.04) for IVIg. The ARR in the AQP4+ subgroup was 0.28 (95% CI 0.14-0.55) for rituximab, 0.39 (95% CI 0.21-0.70) for mycophenolate, 0.41 (95% CI 0.13-1.29) for azathioprine, and 0.54 (95% CI 0.23-1.26) for IVIg. The ARR in the treatment-naive group was 0.97 (95% CI 0.58-1.60) in all serogroups and 0.91 (95% CI 0.53-1.56) in the AQP4+ subgroup. None of the initial DMT had a statistically significant effect on EDSS progression.

DISCUSSION

The use of DMTs, particularly rituximab, is associated with a lowered annualized relapse rate in children with NMOSD AQP4+.

CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE

This study provides Class IV evidence that use of disease-modifying treatments is associated with a lowered annualized relapse rate in children with NMOSD AQP4+.

Effectiveness and tolerability of different therapies in preventive treatment of MOG-IgG-associated disorder: A network meta-analysis

Background

Immunotherapy has been shown to reduce relapses in patients with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disorder (MOG-AD); however, the superiority of specific treatments remains unclear.

Aim

To identify the efficacy and tolerability of different treatments for MOG-AD.

Methods

Systematic search in Pubmed, Embase, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library databases from inception to March 1, 2021, were performed. Published articles including patients with MOG-AD and reporting the efficacy or tolerability of two or more types of treatment in preventing relapses were included. Reported outcomes including incidence of relapse, annualized relapse rate (ARR), and side effects were extracted. Network meta-analysis with a random-effect model within a Bayesian framework was conducted. Between group comparisons were estimated using Odds ratio (OR) or mean difference (MD) with 95% credible intervals (CrI).

Results

Twelve studies that compared the efficacy of 10 different treatments in preventing MOG-AD relapse, including 735 patients, were analyzed. In terms of incidence of relapse, intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG), oral corticosteroids (OC), mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), azathioprine (AZA), and rituximab (RTX) were all significantly more effective than no treatment (ORs ranged from 0.075 to 0.34). On the contrary, disease-modifying therapy (DMT) (OR=1.3, 95% CrI: 0.31 to 5.0) and tacrolimus (TAC) (OR=5.9, 95% CrI: 0.19 to 310) would increase the incidence of relapse. Compared with DMT, IVIG significantly reduced the ARR (MD=-0.85, 95% CrI: -1.7 to -0.098). AZA, MMF, OC and RTX showed a trend to decrease ARR, but those results did not reach significant differences. The combined results for relapse rate and adverse events, as well as ARR and adverse events showed that IVIG and OC were the most effective and tolerable therapies.

Conclusions

Whilst DMT should be avoided, IVIG and OC may be suited as first-line therapies for patients with MOG-AD. RTX, MMF, and AZA present suitable alternatives.

Emerging drugs for the acute treatment of relapses in adult neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder patients

INTRODUCTION

Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD) are rare but often devastating neuroinflammatory autoimmune diseases of the central nervous system. Acute treatment is critically important and it should be initiated early and aggressively, as relapses result in severe residual disability. Acute treatments are still based on clinical experience and observational studies. The most commonly used treatments are steroids and plasmapheresis. Several new treatments to improve management and recovery after relapses in NMOSD are currently under investigation.

AREAS COVERED

: This review discusses current and the most recent advances in active development of phase II/III clinical trials for acute treatment options and therapeutic strategies that can help management improvement of NMOSD during a relapse. These treatments include bevacizumab, ublituximab and HBM9161.

EXPERT OPINION

NMOSD relapses require prompt evaluation and timely treatment to restore function and mitigate disability. Timing is critical. Plasmapheresis showed better outcomes in terms of recovery when compared to high-dose intravenous methylprednisolone alone. Some groups suggest that plasmapheresis could be considered as an initial treatment approach in different clinical scenarios due to its higher effectiveness. Future research and/or real-world data will establish the advantages and disadvantages of these new treatments and define the appropriate patient profile.

Optic Neuritis in the Era of NMOSD and MOGAD: A Survey of Practice Patterns in Singapore

PURPOSE

The Optic Neuritis Treatment Trial was a landmark study with implications worldwide. In the advent of antibody testing for neuromyelitis optica spectrum disease (NMOSD) and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease (MOGAD), emerging concepts, such as routine antibody testing and management, remain controversial, resulting mostly from studies in White populations. We evaluate the practice patterns of optic neuritis investigation and management by neuro-ophthalmologists and neurologists in Singapore.

DESIGN

21-question online survey consisting of 4 clinical vignettes.

METHODS

The survey was sent to all Singapore Medical Council- registered ophthalmologists and neurologists who regularly manage patients with optic neuritis.

RESULTS

Forty-two recipients (17 formally trained neuro-ophthalmol-ogists [100% response rate] and 25 neurologists) responded. Participants opted for routine testing of anti-aquaporin-4 antibodies (88.1% in mild optic neuritis and 97.6% in severe optic neuritis). Anti-MOG antibodies were frequently obtained (76.2% in mild and 88.1% in severe optic neuritis). Plasmapheresis was rapidly initiated (85.7%) in cases of nonresponse to intravenous steroids, even before obtaining anti-aquaporin-4 or anti-MOG serology results. In both NMOSD and MOGAD, oral mycophenolate mofetil was the preferred option if chronic immunosuppression was necessary. Steroids were given for a longer duration and tapered more gradually than in idiopathic optic neuritis cases.

CONCLUSIONS

Serological testing for NMOSD and MOGAD is considered as a routine procedure in cases of optic neuritis in Singapore, possibly due to local epidemiological features of these conditions. Chronic oral immunosuppression is preferred for the long term, but further research is necessary to establish the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of these practices.

Pediatric Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder: Case Series and Literature Review

Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder (NMOSD) is a central nervous system (CNS) inflammatory demyelinating disease characterized by recurrent inflammatory events that primarily involve optic nerves and the spinal cord, but also affect other regions of the CNS, including hypothalamus, area postrema and periaqueductal gray matter. The aquaporin-4 antibody (AQP4-IgG) is specific for NMOSD. Recently, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies (MOG-IgG) have been found in a group of AQP4-IgG negative patients. NMOSD is rare among children and adolescents, but early diagnosis is important to start adequate therapy. In this report, we present cases of seven pediatric patients with NMOSD and we review the clinical and neuroimaging characteristics, diagnosis, and treatment of NMOSD in children.

Treatment of Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders

Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) is an autoimmune central nervous system (CNS) inflammatory disorder that can lead to serious disability and mortality. Females are predominantly affected, including those within the reproductive age. Most patients develop relapsing attacks of optic neuritis; longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis; and encephalitis, especially brainstem encephalitis. The majority of NMOSD patients are seropositive for IgG autoantibodies against the water channel protein aquaporin-4 (AQP4-IgG), reflecting underlying aquaporin-4 autoimmunity. Histological findings of the affected CNS tissues of patients from in-vitro and in-vivo studies support that AQP4-IgG is directly pathogenic in NMOSD. It is believed that the binding of AQP4-IgG to CNS aquaporin-4 (abundantly expressed at the endfoot processes of astrocytes) triggers astrocytopathy and neuroinflammation, resulting in acute attacks. These attacks of neuroinflammation can lead to pathologies, including aquaporin-4 loss, astrocytic activation, injury and loss, glutamate excitotoxicity, microglial activation, neuroinflammation, demyelination, and neuronal injury, via both complement-dependent and complement-independent pathophysiological mechanisms. With the increased understanding of these mechanisms underlying this serious autoimmune astrocytopathy, effective treatments for both active attacks and long-term immunosuppression to prevent relapses in NMOSD are increasingly available based on the evidence from retrospective observational data and prospective clinical trials. Knowledge on the indications and potential side effects of these medications are essential for a clear evaluation of the potential benefits and risks to NMOSD patients in a personalized manner. Special issues such as pregnancy and the coexistence of other autoimmune diseases require additional concern and meticulous care. Future directions include the identification of clinically useful biomarkers for the prediction of relapse and monitoring of the therapeutic response, as well as the development of effective medications with minimal side effects, especially opportunistic infections complicated by long-term immunosuppression.

Conus involvement and leptomeningeal enhancement in aquaporin-4 antibody-positive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder: A case report

There are a variety of clinical phenotypes and radiological features that continue to make a diagnosis of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) challenging. We present an atypical case of an adult woman who presented with flaccid paralysis of all extremities with unusual neuroimaging features, including extensive enhancing lesions in the upper cervical cord and conus medullaris with associated leptomeningeal enhancement. She was ultimately found to have AQP4 antibody-positive NMOSD. We discuss the factors that complicated a timely diagnosis, including her atypical radiographic features and an initially negative cell-based assay for myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) and aquaporin-4 (AQP4) antibodies. Despite the rarity of conus medullaris involvement or leptomeningeal enhancement in AQP4 antibody-positive NMOSD, it is important to maintain a high level of clinical suspicion to avoid diagnostic and therapeutic delays. Though cell-based assays have high sensitivities, testing should be repeated on negative values in these scenarios.

Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment for steroid-resistant optic neuritis: a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, controlled phase III study

PURPOSE

To evaluate the efficacy and safety of intravenous "freeze-dried sulfonated human normal immunoglobulin (GGS)" in patients with steroid-resistant optic neuritis (ON).

STUDY DESIGN

Multicenter, prospective, double-blind, parallel-group, randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

Patients with steroid-resistant acute ON were randomly assigned to receive either intravenous GGS (GGS group) or intravenous methylprednisolone (steroid pulse [SP] group). Visual acuity (logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution [logMAR]), mean deviation (MD) value of the Humphrey Field Analyzer, and critical flicker fusion frequency were measured as efficacy endpoints; adverse events (AEs) were assessed as the safety endpoint.

RESULTS

Thirty-two patients (16 patients/group) received the study drugs. The primary endpoint, change in logMAR at week 2 compared to baseline, showed no statistically significant intergroup difference. However, compared with the SP group, change in the GGS group was increasingly indicative of visual improvement, with least squares mean difference of > 0.3 logMAR. On post-hoc analyses, the percentage of patients in the GGS and SP groups with improvement by ≥ 0.3 logMAR at week 2 were 75.0% and 31.3%, respectively. Changes in MD values at week 2 compared to baseline were 9.258  ±  8.296 (mean ± standard deviation) dB and 3.175  ±  6.167 dB in the GGS and SP groups, respectively. These results showed statistically significant intergroup differences (visual acuity improvement, P = 0.032; change in MD values, P = 0.030). No clinically significant AEs were observed.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that intravenous immunoglobulin could be a safe and efficacious therapeutic option for prompt treatment of steroid-resistant acute ON.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

JapicCTI-132080.

B Cells and Antibodies as Targets of Therapeutic Intervention in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders

The first description of neuromyelitis optica by Eugène Devic and Fernand Gault dates back to the 19th century, but only the discovery of aquaporin-4 autoantibodies in a major subset of affected patients in 2004 led to a fundamentally revised disease concept: Neuromyelits optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD) are now considered autoantibody-mediated autoimmune diseases, bringing the pivotal pathogenetic role of B cells and plasma cells into focus. Not long ago, there was no approved medication for this deleterious disease and off-label therapies were the only treatment options for affected patients. Within the last years, there has been a tremendous development of novel therapies with diverse treatment strategies: immunosuppression, B cell depletion, complement factor antagonism and interleukin-6 receptor blockage were shown to be effective and promising therapeutic interventions. This has led to the long-expected official approval of eculizumab in 2019 and inebilizumab in 2020. In this article, we review current pathogenetic concepts in NMOSD with a focus on the role of B cells and autoantibodies as major contributors to the propagation of these diseases. Lastly, by highlighting promising experimental and future treatment options, we aim to round up the current state of knowledge on the therapeutic arsenal in NMOSD.

Neuromyelitis optica

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO; also known as Devic syndrome) is a clinical syndrome characterized by attacks of acute optic neuritis and transverse myelitis. In most patients, NMO is caused by pathogenetic serum IgG autoantibodies to aquaporin 4 (AQP4), the most abundant water-channel protein in the central nervous system. In a subset of patients negative for AQP4-IgG, pathogenetic serum IgG antibodies to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein, an antigen in the outer myelin sheath of central nervous system neurons, are present. Other causes of NMO (such as paraneoplastic disorders and neurosarcoidosis) are rare. NMO was previously associated with a poor prognosis; however, treatment with steroids and plasma exchange for acute attacks and with immunosuppressants (in particular, B cell-depleting agents) for attack prevention has greatly improved the long-term outcomes. Recently, a number of randomized controlled trials have been completed and the first drugs, all therapeutic monoclonal antibodies, have been approved for the treatment of AQP4-IgG-positive NMO and its formes frustes.

Review of approved NMO therapies based on mechanism of action, efficacy and long-term effects

•

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO - including NMO spectrum disorders [NMOSD]) is a devastating disease.

•

Up until recently, there was no proven agent to treat to prevent relapses.

•

We now have three agents indicated for the treatment of NMO.

•

We might suggest the following sequence – 1st line using eculizumab for rapid efficacy and stabilization without effect on the acquired immune system followed by satrilizumab (long term immunomodulation).

•

Reserve inebilizumab (immunosuppressant) for breakthrough disease and salvage the severe with AHSCBMT.

•

In NMO, control the complement, transition to modulation, and reserve suppression – and salvage the severe with AHSCBMT.

Importance

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO - including NMO spectrum disorders [NMOSD]) is a devastating disease. Eighty-three percent of patients with transverse myelitic (TM) attacks and 67% of patients with optic neuritis (ON) attacks have no or a partial recovery.

Observations

Up until recently, there was no proven agent to treat to prevent relapses. The neuro-immunological community had a dearth of indicated agents for NMOSD. We now have three agents indicated for the treatment of NMO including (eculizumab [Soliris®]), an anti-C5 complement inhibitor, satralizumab (ENSRYNG®), a monoclonal antibody against the IL-6 receptor (IL-6R) that blocks B cell antibody production and inebilizumab (Uplinza®), a monoclonal antibody that binds to the B-cell surface antigen CD19 with subsequent B and plasmablast cell lymphocytolysis with decreasing antibody production. Autologous hematopoietic stem cell bone marrow transplantation (AHSCBMT) has also been used. How do we sequence NMO therapies with the understanding of the acuteness and severity of the disease, the individual mechanism of action (MOA) and rapidity of onset of action, onset of efficacy and long-term safety of each agent?

Conclusions and Relevance

We might suggest the following sequence – 1st line using eculizumab for rapid efficacy and stabilization without effect on the acquired immune system followed by satrilizumab (long term immunomodulation). Reserve inebilizumab (immunosuppressant) for breakthrough disease and salvage the severe with AHSCBMT. In NMO, control the complement, transition to modulation, and reserve suppression – and salvage the severe with AHSCBMT.

Management Strategies of Patients with Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder During the COVID-19 Pandemic Era

The ongoing coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic is a global health emergency of international concern and has affected management plans of many autoimmune disorders. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory therapies are pivotal in the management of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD), potentially placing patients at an increased risk of contracting infections such as COVID-19. The optimal management strategy of NMOSD during the COVID-19 era remains unclear. Here, however, we examined the evidence of NMOSD disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) use during the present period and highlighted different scenarios including treatment of relapses as well as initiation and maintenance of DMTs in order to optimize care of NMOSD patients in the COVID-19 era.

Differential Effects of MS Therapeutics on B Cells-Implications for Their Use and Failure in AQP4-Positive NMOSD Patients

B cells are considered major contributors to multiple sclerosis (MS) pathophysiology. While lately approved disease-modifying drugs like ocrelizumab deplete B cells directly, most MS medications were not primarily designed to target B cells. Here, we review the current understanding how approved MS medications affect peripheral B lymphocytes in humans. These highly contrasting effects are of substantial importance when considering these drugs as therapy for neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD), a frequent differential diagnosis to MS, which is considered being a primarily B cell- and antibody-driven diseases. Data indicates that MS medications, which deplete B cells or induce an anti-inflammatory phenotype of the remaining ones, were effective and safe in aquaporin-4 antibody positive NMOSD. In contrast, drugs such as natalizumab and interferon-β, which lead to activation and accumulation of B cells in the peripheral blood, lack efficacy or even induce catastrophic disease activity in NMOSD. Hence, we conclude that the differential effect of MS drugs on B cells is one potential parameter determining the therapeutic efficacy or failure in antibody-dependent diseases like seropositive NMOSD.

Consensus Statement On Immune Modulation in Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Expert Group on Behalf of the Indian Academy of Neurology

Knowledge related to SARS-CoV-2 or 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) is still emerging and rapidly evolving. We know little about the effects of this novel coronavirus on various body systems and its behaviour among patients with underlying neurological conditions, especially those on immunomodulatory medications. The aim of the present consensus expert opinion document is to appraise the potential concerns when managing our patients with underlying CNS autoimmune demyelinating disorders during the current COVID-19 pandemic.

Role of complement and potential of complement inhibitors in myasthenia gravis and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders: a brief review

The complement system is a powerful member of the innate immune system. It is highly adept at protecting against pathogens, but exists in a delicate balance between its protective functions and overactivity, which can result in autoimmune disease. A cascade of complement proteins that requires sequential activation, and numerous complement regulators, exists to regulate a proportionate response to pathogens. In spite of these mechanisms there is significant evidence for involvement of the complement system in driving the pathogenesis of variety of diseases including neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD) and myasthenia gravis (MG). As an amplification cascade, there are an abundance of molecular targets that could be utilized for therapeutic intervention. Clinical trials assessing complement pathway inhibition in both these conditions have recently been completed and include the first randomized placebo-controlled trial in NMOSD showing positive results. This review aims to review and update the reader on the complement system and the evolution of complement-based therapeutics in these two disorders.

Efficacy and Tolerability of Intravenous Immunoglobulin and Subcutaneous Immunoglobulin in Neurologic Diseases

PURPOSE

IV immunoglobulin (Ig) therapy has been widely used for the treatment of neurologic disorders, autoimmune diseases, immunodeficiency-related diseases, blood system diseases, and cancers. In this review, we summarize the efficacy and tolerability of IVIg and SCIg therapy in neurologic diseases.

METHODS

We summarized and analyzed the efficacy and tolerability of IVIg and SCIg in neurologic diseases, by analyzing the literature pertaining to the use of IVIg and SCIg to treat nervous system diseases.

FINDINGS

In clinical neurology practice, IVIg has been shown to be useful for the treatment of new-onset or recurrent immune diseases and for long-term maintenance treatment of chronic diseases. Moreover, IVIg may have applications in the management of intractable autoimmune epilepsy, paraneoplastic syndrome, autoimmune encephalitis, and neuromyelitis optica. SCIg is emerging as an alternative to IVIg treatment. Although SCIg has a composition similar to that of IVIg, the applications of this therapy are different. Notably, the bioavailability of SCIg is lower than that of IVIg, but the homeostasis level is more stable. Current studies have shown that these 2 therapies have pharmacodynamic equivalence.

IMPLICATIONS

In this review, we explored the efficacy of IVIg in the treatment of various neurologic disorders. IVIg administration still faces many challenges. Thus, it will be necessary to standardize the use of IVIg in the clinical setting. SCIg administration is a novel and feasible treatment option for neurologic and immune-related diseases, such as chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy and idiopathic inflammatory myopathies. As our understanding of the mechanisms of action of IVIg improve, potential next-generation biologics can being developed.

Intravenous Immunoglobulin Treatment for Recurrent Optic Neuritis

Introduction

Recurrent optic neuritis neuritis (rON) is an autoimmune inflammatory condition of unknown cause. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) treatment is used for many autoimmune disorders; however we do not have any information about its effect in rON, other than case reports. We aimed to evaluate our patients with rON who were treated with IVIg.

Methods

Data from all our patients with rON with or without anti aquaporin4 (AQP4) seropositivity, seen between April 2011 and October 2015, who received IVIg treatment were retrospectively evaluated.

Results

Nine patients (all female) with rON had received IVIg. These patients were aged between 34 and 65 years, and had started receiving monthly IVIg from 6 to 58 months after onset of disease. In three out of nine rON patients serum AQP4 antibody were positive. Under current treatments the patients had continued to have attacks, therefore monthly IVIg was given in addition to the existing immunosuppressant drug. The follow up duration was between 6 to 31 months. Three patients, each suffered one relapse under IVIg treatment. Mean number of relapses in the year prior to treatment was 1.4±0.72, whereas it was 0.3±0.5 during the year after IVIg therapy. During follow-up with IVIg administration only one patient had fever and no other adverse events were reported.

Conclusion

Monthly IVIg is well-tolerated and safe and it seems to be effective in rON as an add on treatment. However, since our study is a retrospective case series, future randomized controlled trials with IVIg are needed.

Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders and pregnancy: relapse-preventive measures and personalized treatment strategies

Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD) are autoimmune inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system that predominately affect women. Some of these patients are of childbearing age at NMOSD onset. This study reviews, on the one hand, the role NMOSD play in fertility, pregnancy complications and pregnancy outcome, and on the other, the effect of pregnancy on NMOSD disease course and treatment options available during pregnancy. Animal studies show lower fertility rates in NMOSD; however, investigations into fertility in NMOSD patients are lacking. Pregnancies in NMOSD patients are associated with increased disease activity and more severe disability postpartum. Some studies found higher risks of pregnancy complications, e.g., miscarriages and preeclampsia. Acute relapses during pregnancy can be treated with methylprednisolone and/or plasma exchange/immunoadsorption. A decision to either stop or continue immunosuppressive therapy with azathioprine or rituximab during pregnancy should be evaluated carefully and factor in the patient's history of disease activity. To this end, involving neuroimmunological specialist centers in the treatment and care of pregnant NMOSD patients is recommended, particularly in specific situations like pregnancy.

Recombinant IgG1 Fc hexamers block cytotoxicity and pathological changes in experimental in vitro and rat models of neuromyelitis optica

Intravenous human immunoglobulin G (IVIG) may have therapeutic benefit in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (herein called NMO), in part because of the anti-inflammatory properties of the IgG Fc region. Here, we evaluated recombinant Fc hexamers consisting of the IgM μ-tailpiece fused with the Fc region of human IgG1. In vitro, the Fc hexamers prevented cytotoxicity in aquaporin-4 (AQP4) expressing cells and in rat spinal cord slice cultures exposed to NMO anti-AQP4 autoantibody (AQP4-IgG) and complement, with >500-fold greater potency than IVIG or monomeric Fc fragments. Fc hexamers at low concentration also prevented antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity produced by AQP4-IgG and natural killer cells. Serum from rats administered a single intravenous dose of Fc hexamers at 50 mg/kg taken at 8 h did not produce complement-dependent cytotoxicity when added to AQP4-IgG-treated AQP4-expressing cell cultures. In an experimental rat model of NMO produced by intracerebral injection of AQP4-IgG, Fc hexamers at 50 mg/kg administered before and at 12 h after AQP4-IgG fully prevented astrocyte injury, complement activation, inflammation and demyelination. These results support the potential therapeutic utility of recombinant IgG1 Fc hexamers in AQP4-IgG seropositive NMO.

[Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder and pregnancy]

BACKGROUND

Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD) are autoimmune inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system that mainly affect women. In some of these patients NMOSD occurs during fertile age. For this reason, treating physicians may be confronted with questions concerning family planning, pregnancy and birth.

OBJECTIVE

This study provides an overview on the influence of NMOSD on fertility, pregnancy complications and pregnancy outcome. The effect of pregnancy on NMOSD course and therapy options during pregnancy are discussed.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A search of the current literature was carried out using the PubMed database.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Animal studies have shown lower fertility rates in NMOSD; however, studies investigating fertility in NMOSD patients are lacking. Pregnancy in NMOSD patients are associated with an increase in postpartum disease activity and a higher grade of disability after pregnancy. Some studies showed higher risks of pregnancy complications e. g. spontaneous abortions and preeclampsia. With a few limitations, acute relapses during pregnancy can be treated with methylprednisolone and/or plasma exchange/immunoadsorption. Stopping or continuing immunosuppressive therapy with azathioprine or rituximab during pregnancy should be critically weighed considering previous and current disease activity. Therefore, a joint supervision by a specialized center is recommended, particularly in specific situations such as pregnancy.

Systematic review of immunoglobulin use in paediatric neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders

AIM

A systematic literature review of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) treatment of paediatric neurological conditions was performed to summarize the evidence, provide recommendations, and suggest future research.

METHOD

A MEDLINE search for articles reporting on IVIG treatment of paediatric neuroinflammatory, neurodevelopmental, and neurodegenerative conditions published before September 2015, excluding single case reports and those not in English. Owing to heterogeneous outcome measures, meta-analysis was not possible. Findings were combined and evidence graded.

RESULTS

Sixty-five studies were analysed. IVIG reduces recovery time in Guillain-Barré syndrome (grade B). IVIG is as effective as corticosteroids in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (grade C), and as effective as tacrolimus in Rasmussen syndrome (grade C). IVIG improves recovery in acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (grade C), reduces mortality in acute encephalitis syndrome with myocarditis (grade C), and improves function and stabilizes disease in myasthenia gravis (grade C). IVIG improves outcome in N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis (grade C) and opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome (grade C), reduces cataplexy symptoms in narcolepsy (grade C), speeds recovery in Sydenham chorea (grade C), reduces tics in selected cases of Tourette syndrome (grade D), and improves symptoms in paediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorder associated with streptococcal infection (grade B).

INTERPRETATION

IVIG is a useful therapy in selected neurological conditions. Well-designed, prospective, multi-centre studies with standardized outcome measures are required to compare treatments.

Update on the use of immunoglobulin in human disease: A review of evidence

Human immunoglobulin preparations for intravenous or subcutaneous administration are the cornerstone of treatment in patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases affecting the humoral immune system. Intravenous preparations have a number of important uses in the treatment of other diseases in humans as well, some for which acceptable treatment alternatives do not exist. We provide an update of the evidence-based guideline on immunoglobulin therapy, last published in 2006. Given the potential risks and inherent scarcity of human immunoglobulin, careful consideration of its indications and administration is warranted.

Efficacy of Polyvalent Human Immunoglobulins in an Animal Model of Neuromyelitis Optica Evoked by Intrathecal Anti-Aquaporin 4 Antibodies

Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders (NMOSD) are associated with autoantibodies (ABs) targeting the astrocytic aquaporin-4 water channels (AQP4-ABs). These ABs have a direct pathogenic role by initiating a variety of immunological and inflammatory processes in the course of disease. In a recently-established animal model, chronic intrathecal passive-transfer of immunoglobulin G from NMOSD patients (NMO-IgG), or of recombinant human AQP4-ABs (rAB-AQP4), provided evidence for complementary and immune-cell independent effects of AQP4-ABs. Utilizing this animal model, we here tested the effects of systemically and intrathecally applied pooled human immunoglobulins (IVIg) using a preventive and a therapeutic paradigm. In NMO-IgG animals, prophylactic application of systemic IVIg led to a reduced median disease score of 2.4 on a 0-10 scale, in comparison to 4.1 with sham treatment. Therapeutic IVIg, applied systemically after the 10th intrathecal NMO-IgG injection, significantly reduced the disease score by 0.8. Intrathecal IVIg application induced a beneficial effect in animals with NMO-IgG (median score IVIg 1.6 vs. sham 3.7) or with rAB-AQP4 (median score IVIg 2.0 vs. sham 3.7). We here provide evidence that treatment with IVIg ameliorates disease symptoms in this passive-transfer model, in analogy to former studies investigating passive-transfer animal models of other antibody-mediated disorders.

Efficacy of Intravenous Immunoglobulin in Neurological Diseases

Owing to its anti-inflammatory efficacy in various autoimmune disease conditions, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG)-pooled IgG obtained from the plasma of several thousands individuals-has been used for nearly three decades and is proving to be efficient in a growing number of neurological diseases. IVIG therapy has been firmly established for the treatment of Guillain-Barré syndrome, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, and multifocal motor neuropathy, either as first-line therapy or adjunctive treatment. IVIG is also recommended as rescue therapy in patients with worsening myasthenia gravis and is beneficial as a second-line therapy for dermatomyositis and stiff-person syndrome. Subcutaneous rather than intravenous administration of IgG is gaining momentum because of its effectiveness in patients with primary immunodeficiency and the ease with which it can be administered independently from hospital-based infusions. The demand for IVIG therapy is growing, resulting in rising costs and supply shortages. Strategies to replace IVIG with recombinant products have been developed based on proposed mechanisms that confer the anti-inflammatory activity of IVIG, but their efficacy has not been tested in clinical trials. This review covers new developments in the immunobiology and clinical applications of IVIG in neurological diseases.

Placebo controlled trials in neuromyelitis optica are needed and ethical

Currently, there are no approved treatments for NMO. All therapeutic studies in NMO have been either small, retrospective case series or uncontrolled prospective studies. Such studies are susceptible to inherent biases. As a consequence, conclusions regarding efficacy and safety from these studies may be erroneous. The optimal method for assessing therapeutic efficacy is the prospective, controlled trial with random treatment assignment that has the potential to control for multiple sources of bias. There is a significant unmet need for well-designed clinical trials in NMO. Successfully conducted, well-controlled NMO trials that show proof of benefit will lead to regulatory approval and subsequent acceptance by payers resulting in broad therapeutic availability. The most direct method to prove efficacy is to compare an active treatment vs. no treatment or placebo control. However, because of the devastating nature of the disease some clinicians are reluctant to expose potential study patients to the risk of no treatment. The primary ethical concern in the case of placebo-control in NMO clinical trials rests on the relative merits of answering the scientific question regarding efficacy compared to the relative risk of exposure to harm in the placebo-control group. This article outlines the case for clinical equipoise in NMO by addressing the uncertainty regarding the relative scientific and clinical merits of current empirically used treatments and showing that a placebo arm is consistent with competent medical care. Because no currently available treatment has proven benefit, and because all therapies are known to potentially cause harm, placebo-control is not only ethical but is in some ways preferable to active comparator or add-on study designs. Without well-designed, placebo-controlled trials, NMO patients may not have access to new treatments and will never know whether the therapies that they may be currently taking have risk to benefit profiles that clearly favor their use.

Longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis (LETM) is a frequently devastating clinical syndrome which has come into focus for its association with neuromyelitis optica (NMO). Recent advances in the diagnosis of NMO have led to very sensitive and specific tests and advances in therapy for this disorder. LETM is not pathognomonic of NMO, therefore it is important to investigate for other causes of myelopathy in these patients. This review aims to discuss recent advances in NMO diagnosis and treatment, and to discuss the differential diagnosis in patients presenting with LETM.

RECENT FINDINGS

Fluorescence-activated cell sorting and cell binding assays for NMO-IgG are the most sensitive for detecting NMO spectrum disorders. Patients who have a clinical presentation of NMO, who have been tested with older ELISA or immunofluorescence assay and been found to be negative, should be retested with a fluorescence-activated cell sorting assay when available, particularly in the presence of recurrent LETM. Novel therapeutic strategies for LETM in the context of NMO include eculizumab, which could be considered in patients with active disease who have failed azathioprine and rituximab. Thorough investigation of patients with LETM who are negative for NMO-IgG may lead to an alternate cause for myelopathy.

SUMMARY

LETM is a heterogeneous condition. Novel treatment strategies are available for NMO, but other causes need to be excluded in NMO-IgG-seronegative patients.

The treatment of neuromyelitis optica

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is an autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system directed against astrocytes. Initially diagnosed in individuals with monophasic or relapsing optic neuritis and transverse myelitis, NMO is now recognized as a demyelinating disorder with pleiotropic presentations due to the identification of a specific autoantibody response against the astrocyte water channel aquaporin-4 in the majority of individuals. As visual impairment and neurologic dysfunction in NMO are commonly severe, aggressive treatment of relapses and prophylactic immunomodulatory therapy are the focus of treatment. Although there are no approved treatments for NMO, medications and therapeutic interventions for acute and chronic treatment have been the subject of retrospective study and case reports. The goal of this review is to familiarize the reader with biologic and clinical data supporting current treatments in NMO and highlight future strategies based on advancements in our understanding of NMO pathogenesis.

Treatment of neuromyelitis optica: state-of-the-art and emerging therapies

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is an autoimmune disease of the CNS that is characterized by inflammatory demyelinating lesions in the spinal cord and optic nerve, potentially leading to paralysis and blindness. NMO can usually be distinguished from multiple sclerosis (MS) on the basis of seropositivity for IgG antibodies against the astrocytic water channel aquaporin-4 (AQP4). Differentiation from MS is crucial, because some MS treatments can exacerbate NMO. NMO pathogenesis involves AQP4-IgG antibody binding to astrocytic AQP4, which causes complement-dependent cytotoxicity and secondary inflammation with granulocyte and macrophage infiltration, blood-brain barrier disruption and oligodendrocyte injury. Current NMO treatments include general immunosuppressive agents, B-cell depletion, and plasma exchange. Therapeutic strategies targeting complement proteins, the IL-6 receptor, neutrophils, eosinophils and CD19--all initially developed for other indications--are under clinical evaluation for repurposing for NMO. Therapies in the preclinical phase include AQP4-blocking antibodies and AQP4-IgG enzymatic inactivation. Additional, albeit currently theoretical, treatment options include reduction of AQP4 expression, disruption of AQP4 orthogonal arrays, enhancement of complement inhibitor expression, restoration of the blood-brain barrier, and induction of immune tolerance. Despite the many therapeutic options in NMO, no controlled clinical trials in patients with this condition have been conducted to date.

Long-term efficacy, tolerability and retention rate of azathioprine in 103 aquaporin-4 antibody-positive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder patients: a multicentre retrospective observational study from the UK

BACKGROUND

Azathioprine (AZA) is a common immunosuppressive drug used for relapse prevention in neuromyelitis optica (NMO).

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this paper is to assess efficacy, tolerability and retention of AZA in a large NMO cohort.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective review of medical records of 103 aquaporin-4 antibody-positive NMO and NMO spectrum disorder (NMOSD) patients treated with AZA.

RESULTS

This is the largest reported cohort of AQP4-Ab positive patients treated with AZA. Eighty-nine per cent (n = 92) had reduction in median annualised relapse rates from 1.5 (IQR 0.6-4.0) to 0 (IQR 0-0.27, p < 0.00005) with treatment. Sixty-one per cent (n = 63) remained relapse free at a median follow-up of 18 months. Neurological function improved or stabilised in 78%. At last follow-up, treatment was discontinued in 46% (n = 47). Of these, 62% (n = 29) were because of side effects, 19% (n = 9) because of death, 15% (n = 7) because of ongoing disease activity, and 2% (n = 1) because of pregnancy. Using Kaplan-Meyer curves, we estimate that 73%, 58%, 47% and 33% of patients will remain on AZA for longer than one, three, five and 10 years, respectively, after initiation of treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

AZA is a modestly effective treatment for NMO. However, many patients discontinue AZA over time and this seems to reflect poor tolerability more than lack of efficacy.

Human immunoglobulin G reduces the pathogenicity of aquaporin-4 autoantibodies in neuromyelitis optica

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) pathogenesis involves binding of anti-aquaporin-4 (AQP4) autoantibodies (NMO-IgG) present in serum to AQP4 on astrocytes, which causes complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). Human immunoglobulin G (hIgG) is effective for treatment of humorally mediated neurological autoimmune diseases and has been reported to improve disease outcome in a limited number of NMO patients. Here, we investigated hIgG actions on NMO-IgG pathogenicity using an in vivo rat model of NMO and in vitro assays. In rats administered NMO-IgG by intracerebral injection, the size of neuroinflammatory demyelinating lesions was reduced by ~50% when hIgG was administered by intraperitoneal injection to reach levels of 10-25mg/mL in rat serum, comparable with human therapeutic levels. In vitro, hIgG at 10mg/mL reduced by 90% NMO-IgG-mediated CDC following addition of NMO-IgG and human complement to AQP4-expressing cells. The hIgG effect was mainly on the classical complement pathway. hIgG at 10mg/mL also reduced by up to 90% NMO-IgG-mediated ADCC as assayed with human natural killer cells as effector cells. However, hIgG at up to 40mg/mL did not affect AQP4 cell surface expression or its supramolecular assembly in orthogonal arrays of particles, nor did it affect NMO-IgG binding to AQP4. We conclude that hIgG reduces NMO-IgG pathogenicity by inhibition of CDC and ADCC, providing a mechanistic basis to support further clinical evaluation of its therapeutic efficacy in NMO.

Subcutaneous IgG in neurologic diseases

Subcutaneous administration of IgG (SCIG) has become widely used in primary immune deficiency diseases but it has only recently been studied for maintenance therapy in autoimmune peripheral neuropathies, such as chronic idiopathic demyelinating polyneuropathy and multifocal motor neuropathy. Weekly self-administration of SCIG is safe and well-tolerated, and results in steady-state serum IgG levels, as contrasted with the peaks and troughs of monthly immune globulin (human) for intravenous use. Freedom from the need for venous access or medical personnel for infusions, flexibility in scheduling, convenience of home therapy, and improved clinical stability due to the steady-state IgG levels, lead many patients to prefer SCIG to immune globulin (human) for intravenous use. Long-term studies are needed to determine if the constant IgG levels and clinical stability translate into better long-term outcomes.

Update on the diagnosis and treatment of neuromyelitis optica: recommendations of the Neuromyelitis Optica Study Group (NEMOS)

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO, Devic’s syndrome), long considered a clinical variant of multiple sclerosis, is now regarded as a distinct disease entity. Major progress has been made in the diagnosis and treatment of NMO since aquaporin-4 antibodies (AQP4-Ab; also termed NMO-IgG) were first described in 2004. In this review, the Neuromyelitis Optica Study Group (NEMOS) summarizes recently obtained knowledge on NMO and highlights new developments in its diagnosis and treatment, based on current guidelines, the published literature and expert discussion at regular NEMOS meetings. Testing of AQP4-Ab is essential and is the most important test in the diagnostic work-up of suspected NMO, and helps to distinguish NMO from other autoimmune diseases. Furthermore, AQP4-Ab testing has expanded our knowledge of the clinical presentation of NMO spectrum disorders (NMOSD). In addition, imaging techniques, particularly magnetic resonance imaging of the brain and spinal cord, are obligatory in the diagnostic workup. It is important to note that brain lesions in NMO and NMOSD are not uncommon, do not rule out the diagnosis, and show characteristic patterns. Other imaging modalities such as optical coherence tomography are proposed as useful tools in the assessment of retinal damage. Therapy of NMO should be initiated early. Azathioprine and rituximab are suggested as first-line treatments, the latter being increasingly regarded as an established therapy with long-term efficacy and an acceptable safety profile in NMO patients. Other immunosuppressive drugs, such as methotrexate, mycophenolate mofetil and mitoxantrone, are recommended as second-line treatments. Promising new therapies are emerging in the form of anti-IL6 receptor, anti-complement or anti-AQP4-Ab biologicals.

[Therapeutic options for autoimmune encephalomyelitis]

Autoantibodies to neuronal tissue are becoming increasingly more important in the evaluation and classification of several neurological diseases, e.g. neuromyelitis optica, paraneoplastic syndromes of the central nervous system (CNS), stiff person syndrome or autoimmune epilepsy. As these disorders are rare, no evidence-based recommendations for therapy are available. Currently, immunomodulating or immunosuppressive drugs are administered in most cases. In paraneoplastic syndromes treatment of the underlying cancer is of considerable importance. This overview summarizes current experiences and recommendations in the treatment of autoimmune neurological disorders.

Optic neuritis in neuromyelitis optica

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is an autoimmune demyelinating disease associated with recurrent episodes of optic neuritis and transverse myelitis, often resulting in permanent blindness and/or paralysis. The discovery of autoantibodies (AQP4-IgG) that target aquaporin-4 (AQP4) has accelerated our understanding of the cellular mechanisms driving NMO pathogenesis. AQP4 is a bidirectional water channel expressed on the plasma membranes of astrocytes, retinal Müller cells, skeletal muscle, and some epithelial cells in kidney, lung and the gastrointestinal tract. AQP4 tetramers form regular supramolecular assemblies at the cell plasma membrane called orthogonal arrays of particles. The pathological features of NMO include perivascular deposition of immunoglobulin and activated complement, loss of astrocytic AQP4, inflammatory infiltration with granulocyte and macrophage accumulation, and demyelination with axon loss. Current evidence supports a causative role of AQP4-IgG in NMO, in which binding of AQP4-IgG to AQP4 orthogonal arrays on astrocytes initiates complement-dependent and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity and inflammation. Immunosuppression and plasma exchange are the mainstays of therapy for NMO optic neuritis. Novel therapeutics targeting specific steps in NMO pathogenesis are entering the development pipeline, including blockers of AQP4-IgG binding to AQP4 and inhibitors of granulocyte function. However, much work remains in understanding the unique susceptibility of the optic nerves in NMO, in developing animal models of NMO optic neuritis, and in improving therapies to preserve vision.

Role of intravenous immunoglobulin in the treatment of acute relapses of neuromyelitis optica: experience in 10 patients

Prompt treatment of neuromyelitis optica (NMO) relapses with steroids or plasma exchange (PLEX) often prevents irreversible disability. The objective of this study is to report the use of intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) as treatment for acute relapses in NMO. A retrospective review of 10 patients treated with IVIG for acute relapses was conducted. IVIG was used in the majority of cases because of lack of response to steroids with/without PLEX. Improvement was noted in five of 11 (45.5%) events; the remaining had no further worsening. One patient, a 79-year-old woman, had a myocardial infarction seven days after IVIG. IVIG may have a role in treating acute NMO relapses.

Polyclonal immunoglobulin G for autoimmune demyelinating nervous system disorders

Demyelinating diseases with presumed autoimmune pathogenesis are characterised by direct or indirect immune-mediated damage to myelin sheaths, which normally surround nerve fibres to ensure proper electrical nerve conduction. Parenteral administration of polyclonal IgG purified from multi-donor human plasma pools may beneficially modulate these misguided immune reactions via several mechanisms that are outlined in this review. Convincing therapeutic evidence from controlled trials now exists for certain disorders of the peripheral nervous system, including Guillain-Barré syndrome, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy, and multifocal motor neuropathy. In addition, there is evidence for potential therapeutic benefits of IgG in patients with chronic inflammatory demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system, including multiple sclerosis and neuromyelitis optica. This review introduces these disorders, briefly summarises the established treatment options, and discusses therapeutic evidence for the use of polyclonal immunoglobulins with a particular emphasis on recent clinical trials and meta-analyses.