Effect of suboptimal breast-feeding on occurrence of autism: A case–control study

Association of Breastfeeding Duration with Neurodevelopmental Outcomes in an Enriched Familial Likelihood Cohort for Autism Spectrum Disorder

This study aimed to compare the breastfeeding (BF) duration of the younger siblings of children with ASD in an enriched-likelihood cohort for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and to determine whether longer BF duration was associated with differences in neurodevelopmental outcomes in this cohort. Information on BF practices was collected via surveys in the MARBLES (Markers of Autism Risk in Babies-Learning Early Signs) study. Developmental evaluations, including the Mullen Scales of Early Learning and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, were conducted by expert clinicians. Participants' neurodevelopmental outcome was classified by an algorithm into three groups: typical development, ASD, and non-typical development. The median duration of BF was 10.70 months (interquartile range of 12.07 months). There were no significant differences in the distribution of duration of BF among the three neurodevelopmental outcome categories. Children in this enriched-likelihood cohort who were breastfed for > 12 months had significantly higher scores on cognitive testing compared to those who were breastfed for 0-3 months. There was no significant difference in ASD symptomatology or ASD risk based on BF duration.

Prenatal, perinatal and parental risk factors for autism spectrum disorder in China: a case- control study

BACKGROUND

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is heritable neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs), but environmental risk factors have also been suggested to a play a role in its development. Prenatal, perinatal and parental factors have been associated with an increased risk of ASD in children. The aim of the present study was to explore the prenatal, perinatal, and parenting risk factors in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) from Beijing, China by comparing them with typically developing (TD) children.

METHODS

A sample of 151 ASD children's parents who from rehabilitation institutions in Beijing were enrolled in this study, and an additional 151 children from kindergartens in Beijing were recruited as a control group (child age: mean = 4.4 years). TD children were matched according to age, sex and maternal education. We explored the maternal AQ (Autism Spectrum Quotient) scores (mean:19.40-19.71, no significant difference between two groups) to referring the genetic baseline. This study evaluated 17 factors with unadjusted and adjusted analyses.

RESULTS

Birth asphyxia was associated with a more than a thirteen-fold higher risk of ASD (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 13.42). Breastfeeding difficulties were associated with a higher risk of ASD(AOR = 3.46). Parenting influenced the risk of ASD, with low responding (LR) and harsh or neglectful parenting associated with a higher risk of ASD in offspring (AOR = 2.37 for LR, AOR = 3.42 for harsh parenting and AOR = 3.01 for neglectful parenting). Maternal fever during pregnancy was associated with a higher risk of ASD in offspring (AOR = 3.81).

CONCLUSIONS

Many factors were associated with ASD in offspring. Further assessment is needed to elucidate the role of modifiable environmental factors to inform prevention strategies.

Infant feeding practices and autism spectrum disorder in US children aged 2-5 years: the national survey of children's health (NSCH) 2016-2020

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between infant feeding practices and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) among children aged 2-5 years in the United States (US).

METHODS

Data from the 2016-2020 National Survey of Children's Health, a nationally representative cross-sectional survey, were utilized for this study. Questionnaires were administered to parents of children aged 2-5 years to gather information on ASD diagnosis, infant feeding practices, and demographic factors (e.g., child sex, ethnic group, and maternal age at birth). Logistic regression with sample weights was employed to assess the association between infant feeding practices and ASD, while controlling for demographic variables. Polynomial regression models were used to examine trends in exclusive breastfeeding and ever breastfeeding rates among children with and without ASD.

RESULTS

A total of 35,050 children aged 2-5 years were analyzed, including 616 diagnosed with ASD, after excluding participants with missing information on breastfeeding and ASD diagnosis. Of these children with ASD, 76.6% (n = 472) had a breastfeeding history, with 67.5% (n = 416) engaged in partial breastfeeding and 9.1% (n = 56) exclusively breastfed. Adjusted odds ratios for each additional month of breastfeeding compared to never being breastfed were 0.98 (95% CI, 0.96-1.01). The adjusted odds ratios for breastfeeding durations of > 0-6 months, > 6-12 months, > 12-24 months, and > 24 months were 0.81 (95% CI, 0.50-1.31), 0.65 (95% CI, 0.36-1.18), 0.81 (95% CI, 0.44-1.49), and 0.48 (95% CI, 0.23-1.01), respectively. Compared to children who were never breastfed, the adjusted odds ratio for children who were ever breastfed was 0.74 (95% CI, 0.47-1.18). Among children with ASD, the proportion of ever breastfeeding declined from 82.0% in 2017 to 64.3% in 2020, while exclusive breastfeeding decreased from 12.0% in 2016 to 4.2% in 2020.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Although no significant association was found between infant feeding practices and ASD among US children aged 2-5 years, the rates of breastfeeding, particularly exclusive breastfeeding, were suboptimal among children with ASD. This highlights the need for specific policies and practices to promote and support breastfeeding among parents of children with ASD or those at high risk of having a child with ASD.

[As early as birth, oxytocin plays a key role in both food and social behavior]

Oxytocin (OT) is a neurohormone that regulates the so-called "social brain" and is mainly studied in adulthood. During postnatal development, the mechanisms by which the OT system structures various behaviors are little studied. Here we present the dynamic process of postnatal development of the OT system as well as the OT functions in the perinatal period that are essential for shaping social behaviors. Specifically, we discuss the role of OT, in the newborn, in integrating and adapting responses to early sensory stimuli and in stimulating suckling activity. Sensory dialogue and suckling are involved in mother-infant bonds and structure future social interactions. In rodents and humans, neurodevelopmental diseases with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), such as Prader-Willi and Schaaf-Yang syndromes, are associated with sensory, feeding and behavioral deficits in infancy. We propose that in early postnatal life, OT plays a key role in stimulating the maturation of neural networks controlling feeding behavior and early social interactions from birth. Administration of OT at birth improves sensory integration of environmental factors and the relationship with the mother as well as sucking activity as we have shown in mouse models and in babies with Prader-Willi syndrome. Long-term effects have also been observed on social and cognitive behavior. Therefore, early feeding difficulties might be an early predictive marker of ASD, and OT treatment a promising option to improve feeding behavior and, in the longer term, social behavioral problems.

Breastfeeding is not a risk factor for clinical severity in Autism spectrum disorder in children from the ELENA cohort

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that results from a complex interaction between genes and environment. Breastfeeding (BF) is thought to promote healthy cognitive development, and a body of research has suggested that it may also protect against ASD. Our objectives were to identify the relationship between the initiation and duration of BF and the severity of clinical presentation in ASD. Data were collected from 243 children with a confirmed diagnosis of ASD followed in the ELENA cohort. Clinical severity was measured according to multiple dimensions using standardised tools. The frequency of the initiation of BF was comparable to that of the general population and the rate of children still being breastfed at six months of age was higher. Our results did not indicate a contribution of initiation or duration of BF to the prevention of clinical severity of ASD. We discuss our results in the light of possible methodological limitations of previous reports of an association between BF and ASD.Clinical Trial Registration: NCT02625116.

Not breastfeeding and risk of autism spectrum disorders among children: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

To our knowledge, this is the first meta-analysis of the association of not breastfeeding and the risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) based on observational studies.

PURPOSE

This meta-analysis aimed to evaluate of the association of not breastfeeding and the risk of ASD.

METHODS

Three databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus) were systematically searched until December 2021. Heterogeneity was determined using the chi-square test and its quantity was measured using the I2 statistic. The Begg line regression test was used to assess publication bias. A random-effects model was used to analyze the data. Seven studies were included in this meta-analysis.

RESULTS

The total study population included 3,270 individuals. According to the random-effects model, the estimated odds ratio of the risk of ASD associated with not breastfeeding was 1.81 (95% confidence interval, 1.35-2.27; I2=0%).

CONCLUSION

The results of the included studies were homogeneous. Our findings showed that not breastfeeding is a risk factor for ASD. These results suggest the importance of breastfeeding in decreasing the risk of ASD in children.

Impact of caesarean delivery on children's autism-like behaviours: the mediation of exclusive breastfeeding

Background

The rate of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been rising worldwide, and therefore it is important to identify potential causes of ASD to facilitate early prevention. This study examined the role of breastfeeding and the association between caesarean delivery (CD) and children’s autism spectrum disorder.

Methods

The data were from the Ma’anshan birth cohort (MABC) in China, that was set up between May 2013 and September 2014. Women within 14 gestational weeks were recruited. The delivery mode was extracted from medical notes and infant feeding was obtained from questionnaire surveys. Autism-like behaviour was assessed using the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT-23) when children were 18 months old, and 3 years of age. At 5 years of age, autism-like behaviour was assessed using the Clancy Autism Behavior Scale behavior. Structural equation models tested the mediation effects of breastfeeding between CD and children’s autism spectrum disorder.

Results

In all, 1520 (48.89%) women gave birth via CD, and 406 (13.86%) children were identified with autism-like behaviours at 18 months. Compared with women giving birth via vaginal delivery, those giving birth via CD were more likely to experience a higher proportion of delayed initiation of breastfeeding (p < 0.01), and delayed onset of lactogenesis (p < 0.01). CD was associated with a lower proportion of exclusive breastfeeding at 4 months after delivery (p = 0.02). Autism-like behaviour was less likely amongst infants with exclusively breastfeeding at 4 months than amongst those not exclusively breastfeeding at 4 months (p < 0.01). SEM indicated that women who gave birth by CD were more likely to stop exclusive breastfeeding in the first 4 months (standard estimations = − 0.04, p = 0.02), and those children who were not exclusively breastfed at 4 months were more likely to have autism-like behaviours (standard estimations = − 0.05, p < 0.01). The associations persisted at 3 years, but not at 5 years.

Conclusions

Exclusive breastfeeding at 4 months of age mediated the association between caesarean delivery and children’s autism-like behaviours.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13006-022-00493-6.

The function of gut microbiota in immune-related neurological disorders: a review

This review provides an overview of the importance of microbiota in the regulation of gut–brain communication in immune-related neurological disorders. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract hosts a diverse abundance of microbiota, referred to as gut microbiota. The gut microbiota plays a role in the maintenance of GI tract homeostasis and is likely to have multiple effects on brain development and function. The bidirectional communication between the gut microbiota and the brain is termed the microbiota–gut–brain axis. This communication between the intestine and the brain appears to affect human health and behavior, as certain animal studies have demonstrated the association between alterations in the gut microbiota and neurological disorders. Most insights about the microbiota–gut–brain axis come from germ-free animal models, which reveal the importance of gut microbiota in neural function. To date, many studies have observed the impact of the gut microbiota in patients with neurological disorders. Although many studies have investigated the microbiota–gut–brain axis, there are still limitations in translating this research to humans given the complexities of the relationship between the gut microbiota and the brain. In this review, we discuss emerging evidence of how the microbiota–gut–brain axis regulates brain development and function through biological networks, as well as the possible contribution of the microbiota–gut–brain axis in immune-related neurological disorders.

Review of Kangaroo Mother Care in the Middle East

Mothers and newborns have a natural physiological requirement to be together immediately after birth. A newborn has a keen sense of smell and will instinctively seek out the mother’s nipple and begin breastfeeding if placed skin-to-skin with her. This practice is known as Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC). It was first suggested in 1978 and has been recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a means to ensure successful breastfeeding. It is well documented that KMC is associated with positive breastfeeding outcomes, particularly in cases where breastfeeding is exclusive and, on average, continued for 3 months or longer. Studies of infant nutrition and breastfeeding have shown the importance of immediate, uninterrupted skin-to-skin contact between newborn and mother following vaginal birth. This practice is also recommended for mothers who give birth via cesarean section, once the newborn is stable. The rate of breastfeeding is still suboptimal in Middle Eastern countries, in light of the WHO’s recommendation that mothers should exclusively breastfeed for the first six months and continue breastfeeding for up to two years. To increase the rate of breastfeeding, practices should be promoted that have been shown to improve outcomes, such as KMC. However, little is known about this important practice in the region. The aim of this study was to shed light on KMC-related studies conducted in the Middle East between January 2010 and January 2022. Specifically, this review examines breastfeeding practice rates for the first 6 months of birth, and evidence of KMC practices, by country and type of study design. The research terms used for this review were “skin to skin”, “Skin to skin contact”, and “Kangaroo Mother Care”, focusing on “Middle East”, “Eastern Mediterranean”, “Arabian Gulf”, “Arab”, and “GCC”.

Association of Breastfeeding for the First Six Months of Life and Autism Spectrum Disorders: A National Multi-Center Study in China

Previous studies have shown that exclusive breastfeeding is associated with lower odds of having autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in children, but data are lacking in Asian countries, especially China. This cross-sectional study of seven cities in China collected data from August 2016 to March 2017 from 6049 toddlers aged 16-30 months and their parents who responded to questionnaires. The breastfeeding status was collected via questionnaires based on recommendations from the World Health Organization. The standard procedure for screening and diagnosis was applied to identify toddlers with ASD. Among the 6049 toddlers (3364 boys [55.6%]; mean [SD] age, 22.7 [4.1] months), 71 toddlers (1.2%) were identified as ASD. The prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding, partial breastfeeding, and not breastfeeding was 48.8%, 42.2%, and 9.1%, respectively. Compared to toddlers with exclusive breastfeeding, toddlers with partial breastfeeding or without breastfeeding had higher odds of having ASD (odd ratios [OR]: 1.55, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.90-2.74; OR: 2.34, 95% CI: 1.10-4.82). We did not find significant modification of demographic characteristics on the associations. The results remained robust in multiple sensitivity analyses. Toddlers without breastfeeding for the first six months of life had higher odds of having ASD, and our findings shed light on the necessity of strengthening public health efforts to increase exclusive breastfeeding in China.

Gut Reactions: How Far Are We from Understanding and Manipulating the Microbiota Complexity and the Interaction with Its Host? Lessons from Autism Spectrum Disorder Studies

Autism is a group of neurodevelopmental disorders, characterized by early onset difficulties in social communication and restricted, repetitive behaviors and interests. It is characterized by familial aggregation, suggesting that genetic factors play a role in disease development, in addition to developmentally early environmental factors. Here, we review the role of the gut microbiome in autism, as it has been characterized in case-control studies. We discuss how methodological differences may have led to inconclusive or contradictory results, even though a disproportion between harmful and beneficial bacteria is generally described in autism. Furthermore, we review the studies concerning the effects of gut microbial-based and dietary interventions on autism symptoms. Also, in this case, the results are not comparable due to the lack of standardized methods. Therefore, autism-specific microbiome signatures and, consequently, possible microbiome-oriented interventions are far from being recognized. We argue that a multi-omic longitudinal implementation may be useful to study metabolic changes connected to microbiome changes.

Associations between Prenatal Education, Breastfeeding and Autistic-Like Behaviors in Pre-Schoolers

This study aimed to investigate the association between prenatal education and autistic-like behaviors of preschoolers as well as the mediating role of breastfeeding in their associations. A cross-sectional study via a structured questionnaire was conducted with 67,578 preschool children and parents from Longhua District of Shenzhen, China. Hierarchical logistic regression models were performed to explore the associations between maternal participation in prenatal education and autistic-like behaviors in preschoolers, as well as the mediating effect of breastfeeding in the associations. After controlling for potential confounders, logistic regression analysis indicated that maternal participation in prenatal education could significantly increase the prevalence of breastfeeding, and the strength of the association was enhanced with the increase frequency of prenatal education visits (ORs ranging from 1.191 to 1.899). While both maternal participation in prenatal education (ORs ranging from 0.732 to 0.798) and breastfeeding (OR = 0.773) were significantly associated with the lower presence of autistic-like behaviors in preschoolers. The crossover analysis indicated that children with both maternal prenatal education and breastfeeding had the lower risk of presence of autistics-like behaviors (OR = 0.569). Furthermore, mediation analysis illustrated that breastfeeding mediated the association between maternal participation in prenatal education and the presence of autistic-like behaviors in preschoolers, with a mediating effect of approximately 14.3%. Our findings suggest that maternal participation in prenatal education is significantly associated with a decreased risk of autistic-like behaviors in preschool children through increased breastfeeding in the mothers who attended prenatal education.

Autism spectrum disorder in the United Arab Emirates: potential environmental links

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been experiencing an increase in global prevalence in recent decades. While many factors could account for this reality, certain environmental links have been shown to contribute to ASD development and etiology. The Middle East has had relatively little published research on ASD etiology although statistics indicate that ASD affects 1 in 146 births in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). This review therefore aims to examine potential causes of ASD within the UAE specifically, focusing on environmental links that may contribute to the rise in ASD cases in this population. Significantly, suboptimal breastfeeding practices, high levels of vitamin D deficiency, increased exposure to pollution, pesticides and heavy metals within the UAE may all be potentially important contributing factors to ASD in this population. Our findings support the notion that there are key links between various environmental factors and ASD prevalence in the UAE. The lack of knowledge and much research on ASD within the UAE deeply necessitates further studies on its etiology as it poses a serious public health challenge in the region and globally.

Eating and Mealtime Behaviors in Patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Current Perspectives

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social and communication skills and repetitive and restrictive behaviors. Children and adolescents with ASD are more likely to present feeding problems than their typically developing peers are. The present narrative review of literature aims to highlight the most recent evidence about epidemiology and presentations of eating and mealtime behavioral abnormalities in ASD from infancy to adolescence. Abnormalities in breastfeeding and acceptance of complementary foods have been described by most of the studies evaluating ASD early feeding history. Among the various eating and mealtime behaviors identified in ASD children and adolescents, the most common was food selectivity. The present review also provides brief overviews of the various aspects of food that may influence food acceptance by ASD patients and of the correlation between eating problems and ASD core symptoms, as well as with cognitive level, language skills, and family environment. However, studies evaluating eating problems in ASD children and adolescents are very heterogeneous and they show methodological differences. Moreover, the absence of unique definitions of eating and mealtime behaviors in ASD further limits the comparability of studies.

Modeled prenatal exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in association with child autism spectrum disorder: A case-control study

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) display neurobehavioral toxicity in laboratory animal studies. We examined associations of modeled prenatal maternal exposure to PFAS with child diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

METHODS

Participants were 453 mother-child pairs from CHARGE (CHildhood Autism Risk from Genetics and Environment), a population-based case-control study. Children underwent psychometric testing and were clinically confirmed for ASD (n = 239) or typical development (TD, n = 214). At the end of the clinic visit, maternal blood specimens were collected. We quantified nine PFAS in maternal serum samples collected when their child was 2-5 years old. As surrogate in utero exposure, we used a model built from external prospective data in pregnancy and 24 months post-partum and then reconstructed maternal PFAS serum concentrations during pregnancy in this case-control sample. We used logistic regression to evaluate associations of modeled prenatal maternal PFAS concentrations with child ASD.

RESULTS

Modeled prenatal maternal perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) were borderline associated with increased odds of child diagnosis of ASD (per nanogram per milliliter increase: odds ratio [OR] = 1.46; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.98, 2.18 for PFHxS, OR = 1.03; 95% CI: 0.99, 1.08 for PFOS). When compared to the lowest quartile (reference category), the highest quartile of modeled prenatal maternal PFHxS was associated with increased odds of child diagnosis of ASD (OR = 1.95; 95% CI: 1.02, 3.72).

CONCLUSIONS

In analyses where modeled prenatal maternal PFAS serum concentrations served as in utero exposure, we observed that prenatal PFHxS and PFOS exposure, but not other PFAS, were borderline associated with increased odds of child diagnosis of ASD. Further studies in which PFAS concentrations are prospectively measured in mothers and children at a range of developmental stages are needed to confirm these findings.

Controlled Antenatal Thyroid Screening II: Effect of Treating Maternal Suboptimal Thyroid Function on Child Behavior

CONTEXT & OBJECTIVES

The Controlled Antenatal Thyroid Screening (CATS) study was the first randomized controlled trial to investigate effects of treating suboptimal gestational thyroid function (SGTF) on child cognition. Since observational studies indicated that SGTF may also increase symptoms of autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), the CATS cohort was used to investigate whether treatment of mothers affected their children's behavior.

DESIGN & PARTICIPANTS

Mothers (N = 475) completed 3 questionnaires: the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), the Child ADHD Questionnaire, and the Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ, used as a screen for autism spectrum disorder [ASD]), about their children (mean age 9.5 years). Group comparisons of total scores, numbers of children above clinical thresholds, and association between high maternal free thyroxine (FT4) (> 97.5th percentile of the UK cohort, "overtreated") and child neurodevelopment were reported.

RESULTS

There were no differences in total scores between normal gestational thyroid function (GTF) (n = 246), treated (n = 125), and untreated (n = 104) SGTF groups. More children of treated mothers scored above clinical thresholds, particularly the overtreated. Scores were above thresholds in SDQ conduct (22% vs 7%), SCQ total scores (7% vs 1%), and ADHD hyperactivity (17% vs 5%) when comparing overtreated (n = 40) and untreated (N = 100), respectively. We identified significantly higher mean scores for SDQ conduct (adjusted mean difference [AMD] 0.74; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.021-1.431; P = 0.040, effect size 0.018) and ADHD hyperactivity (AMD 1.60, 95% CI, 0.361-2.633; P = 0.003, effect size 0.028) comparing overtreated with normal-GTF children.

CONCLUSIONS

There was no overall association between SGTF and offspring ADHD, ASD, or behavior questionnaire scores. However, children of "overtreated" mothers displayed significantly more ADHD symptoms and behavioral difficulties than those of normal-GTF mothers. Thyroxine supplementation during pregnancy requires monitoring to avoid overtreatment.

Association of breastfeeding status with risk of autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review, dose-response analysis and meta-analysis

Current evidence indicates that nutritional status in newborns, especially the duration of breastfeeding, plays a key role in the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorder. We aimed to systematically review and meta-analyze relevant studies with findings of an association between autism spectrum disorder and breastfeeding patterns, and undertook an extensive dose-response analysis to interpret the results more accurately. Ten electronic databases and manual search of reference lists were used to identify relevant studies in September 2018. Dose-response and conventional meta-analysis were conducted by the random-effects model. The study protocol was registered in PROSPERO with CRD42016043128. Seven case-control studies were found in which the association between ever breastfeeding and risk of autism spectrum disorder was investigated. We found a 58 % decrease in the risk of autism spectrum disorder with ever breastfeeding and a 76 % decrease in the risk with exclusive breastfeeding. According to our dose-response meta-analysis, breastfeeding for 6 months was associated with a 54 % reduction in the risk. In the conventional meta-analysis, breastfeeding for 12-24 months was associated with the most significant reduction in the risk of autism spectrum disorder. Our results highlight the importance of breastfeeding to decrease the risk of autism spectrum disorder.

Food Selection and Preferences of Omani Autistic Children

BACKGROUND

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by core deficits in social interactions, verbal/nonverbal communication, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped behaviors. Children with ASD are known to have several feeding problems that are believed to affect their nutritional and health status.

AIM

The present study was designed to assess the food preferences in Omani children diagnosed with ASD compared with controls.

METHODS

A case-control study was conducted in which 375 children (males and females) aged between 4 and 13 years were recruited. The sample consisted of 163 children with ASD and a control group of 212 typically developing (TD) children. For each participant, demographic, anthropometric, and medical information and information regarding dietary intakes were gathered using the food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to assess their food preferences.

RESULTS

The sociodemographic characteristics of caregivers were similar in the two groups, while their perceptions based on several nutritional parameters were different. Children's age and body mass index (BMI) were similar in both groups, while the number of male children was higher in ASD group (P < 0.001). Problematic behaviors including food refusal and selectivity were significantly higher in ASD children than in TD children. Despite that, the children with ASD were found to consume mostly traditional Omani dishes.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study that provides information on the eating habits and nutritional intake of Omani children diagnosed with ASD. The overall findings are promising and may contribute to further understanding of food preferences in children with ASD in Oman. Such information is highly valuable for the prevention and management of nutritional deficiencies among Omani children with autism by improving their diet quality.

Role of Exclusive Breastfeeding in Conferring Protection in Children At-Risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder: Results from a Sibling Case-control Study

Background

Gut microflora influences neural development through complex mechanisms. Feeding practices, especially breastfeeding influence gut microbiome and thereby play a pivotal role in immune and neural development. Current understandings of the role of healthy distal gut microflora in the development of immune and neural systems provide insights into immunological mechanisms as one of the possible etiologies in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Studies have shown that optimal breastfeeding is associated with lower odds of being at-risk for ASD and children with ASD are suboptimally breastfed.

Methods

The feeding practices of children with ASD (n = 30) was compared to their typically developing siblings as matched controls (n = 30). Information regarding feeding practices was collected from mothers through a semi-structured questionnaire.

Results

About 43.3% of children with ASD received exclusive breastfeeding, whereas 76.7% of their typically developing siblings were exclusively breastfed. Exclusive breastfeeding was associated with lower odds for ASD (odds ratio [OR] = 0.166; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.025-0.65), while early introduction of top feeds was associated with higher odds (OR = 6; 95% CI = 1.33-55.19). Difficulties in breastfeeding were attributed to child-related factors in 13.2% of the children.

Conclusion

Children with ASD are suboptimally breastfed compared to their typically developing siblings. Exclusive breastfeeding may confer protection in vulnerable children. Further studies on larger prospective sample are required to establish the association.

Levels of Salivary Sialic Acid in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder; Could It Be Related to Stereotypes and Hyperactivity?

Objective

Sialic acid (Sia) is an essential nutrient for brain development, learning, memory and cognition and plays a role in neurodevelopment of infants. The aim of this study was to determine whether Sia levels are significantly associated with the autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Methods

Forty-six ASD children and 30 typically developing children aged 3 to 10 years were included in the study. Behavioral symptoms in ASD children was assessed by the Autism Behavior Checklist (AuBC), the Childhood Autism Rating Scale, and the Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC). After the collection of saliva samples, the supernatant was separated. All the samples kept at −80°C until Sia analysis was done.

Results

Sia level was found to be significantly lower in the ASD group when compared to healthy controls (p = 0.013). There was no correlation between severity of ASD and salivary Sia levels. We found a negative correlation between AuBC scores and Sia levels and a negative correlation in both ABC Stereotypic Behavior and Hyperactivity/Noncompliance subscales with Sia levels in ASD group.

Conclusion

The obtained data indicate that Sia levels could have an effect on autism-like behaviors, particularly on stereotypes and hyperactivity.

Psychological effects of breastfeeding on children and mothers

While the nutritional and physical health benefits of breastfeeding are well established, accumulating research demonstrates the far-reaching psychological effects of breastfeeding on children and their mothers. Here, we provide a non-exhaustive review of the empirical evidence, showing that breastfeeding impacts children's brain, cognitive, and socio-emotional development. In mothers, research is presented indicating that breastfeeding influences mood, affect, stress, and maternal care. The current review aims to provide a broad overview of existing findings on the psychological effects of breastfeeding, highlighting the important role that breastfeeding plays across several dimensions of psychological functioning. We also discuss the potential mechanisms that may underpin the observed effects, provide a constructive commentary on the limitations of the existing work, and put forth some considerations when evaluating this line of research.

Risk Factors for Unhealthy Weight Gain and Obesity among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder characterized by social and communication deficits and repetitive behaviors. Children with ASD are also at a higher risk for developing overweight or obesity than children with typical development (TD). Childhood obesity has been associated with adverse health outcomes, including insulin resistance, diabetes, heart disease, and certain cancers. Importantly some key factors that play a mediating role in these higher rates of obesity include lifestyle factors and biological influences, as well as secondary comorbidities and medications. This review summarizes current knowledge about behavioral and lifestyle factors that could contribute to unhealthy weight gain in children with ASD, as well as the current state of knowledge of emerging risk factors such as the possible influence of sleep problems, the gut microbiome, endocrine influences and maternal metabolic disorders. We also discuss some of the clinical implications of these risk factors and areas for future research.

Association Between Breastfeeding Initiation and Duration and Autism Spectrum Disorder in Preschool Children Enrolled in the Study to Explore Early Development

Studies report inconsistent findings on the relationship between ASD and breastfeeding. We explored associations between ASD and breastfeeding initiation (yes/no) and duration (months categorized in tertiles) in the Study to Explore Early Development, a community-based case-control study in six sites in the Unites States. We adjusted for various child and mother demographic and pregnancy factors. Breastfeeding initiation was reported in 85.7% of mothers of children with ASD and 90.6% of mothers of controls. After adjustment, we found no significant difference in breastfeeding initiation (adjusted odds-ratio [aOR]: 0.88 and 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.60-1.28). However, mothers of children with ASD were less likely to report duration of breastfeeding in the high (≥12 months) versus low tertile (<6 months) (aOR and 95% CI: 0.61 [0.45-0.84]) or the middle (6-<12 months) versus low tertile (0.72: 0.54-0.98). The association of ASD and breastfeeding duration was slightly attenuated when the presence of the broader autism phenotype (BAP) in the mother was accounted for, but still remained for the highest tertile. This association does not appear to be totally explained by maternal BAP. We were unable to distinguish whether the difference in duration was due to difficulties breastfeeding children who later develop ASD, other factors not adjusted in our study, or greater ASD risk resulting from shorter breastfeeding duration. Longitudinal studies that compare reasons why mothers stop breastfeeding between ASD and controls and establish a temporal relation between ASD and breastfeeding are needed. Future studies should also evaluate interactions between ASD risk genes and breastfeeding. Autism Research 2019, 12: 816-829. © 2019 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY: In this study, we compared breastfeeding practices between mothers of children with and without autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We found that the percentage of mothers who started breastfeeding was similar between the two groups, but mothers of children with ASD breastfed for a shorter amount of time compared to mothers of children without ASD. Future studies are needed to evaluate the reasons why the duration of breastfeeding was shorter for mothers of children with ASD compared to those without ASD.

Pilot study of probiotic/colostrum supplementation on gut function in children with autism and gastrointestinal symptoms

Over half of all children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have gastrointestinal (GI) co-morbidities including chronic constipation, diarrhea, and irritable bowel syndrome. The severity of these symptoms has been correlated with the degree of GI microbial dysbiosis. The study objective was to assess tolerability of a probiotic (Bifidobacterium infantis) in combination with a bovine colostrum product (BCP) as a source of prebiotic oligosaccharides and to evaluate GI, microbiome and immune factors in children with ASD and GI co-morbidities. This pilot study is a randomized, double blind, controlled trial of combination treatment (BCP + B. infantis) vs. BCP alone in a cross-over study in children ages 2-11 with ASD and GI co-morbidities (n = 8). This 12-week study included 5 weeks of probiotic-prebiotic supplementation, followed by a two-week washout period, and 5 weeks of prebiotic only supplementation. The primary outcome of tolerability was assessed using validated questionnaires of GI function and atypical behaviors, along with side effects. Results suggest that the combination treatment is well-tolerated in this cohort. The most common side effect was mild gassiness. Some participants on both treatments saw a reduction in the frequency of certain GI symptoms, as well as reduced occurrence of particular aberrant behaviors. Improvement may be explained by a reduction in IL-13 and TNF-α production in some participants. Although limited conclusions can be drawn from this small pilot study, the results support the need for further research into the efficacy of these treatments.

Low maternal melatonin level increases autism spectrum disorder risk in children

BACKGROUND

It is assumed that autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is caused by a combination of de novo inherited variation and common variation as well as environmental factors. It often co-occurs with intellectual disability (ID). Almost eight hundred potential causative genetic variations have been found in ASD patients. However, not one of them is responsible for more than 1% of ASD cases. Low melatonin levels are a frequent finding in ASD patients. Melatonin levels are negatively correlated with severity of autistic impairments, it is important for normal neurodevelopment and is highly effective in protecting DNA from oxidative damage. Melatonin deficiency could be a major factor, and well a common heritable variation, that increases the susceptibility to environmental risk factors for ASD. ASD is already present at birth. As the fetus does not produce melatonin, low maternal melatonin levels may be involved.

METHODS

We measured 6-sulfatoxymelatonin in urine of 60 mothers of a child with ASD and controls.

RESULTS

6-sulfatoxymelatonin levels were significantly lower in mothers with an ASD child than in controls (p = 0.012).

CONCLUSIONS

Low parental melatonin levels could be one of the contributors to ASD and possibly ID etiology. Our findings need to be duplicated on a larger scale. If our hypothesis is correct, this could lead to policies to detect future parents who are at risk and to treatment strategies to ASD and intellectual disability risk.

Infant colic or early symptom of autism spectrum disorder?

BACKGROUND

Gastrointestinal (GI) disorders are common in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Infant colic (IC), the functional GI disorder of infancy, has not been evaluated in this patient group. The aim of this study was therefore to determine the rate of IC in ASD and investigate a possible association between ASD and IC.

METHODS

The subjects consisted of 100 ASD patients (mean age, 6.6 ± 3.5 years) and 100 healthy controls (mean age, 5.3 ± 2.8 years). The parents were questioned using the diagnostic criteria for infant colic for clinical research purposes defined in Rome IV to diagnose IC, retrospectively. The sample size was estimated using a maximum type I error probability of 5% (alpha) and a type II error of 20%.

RESULTS

The rate of IC was 16% and 17% in the ASD group and control group, respectively (P ˃ 0.05). Excessive crying with late onset and long duration in infants was defined as persistent crying. The rate of persistent crying was significantly higher in the ASD group than in the control group (32% vs 9%, P < 0.001). The relative risk of persistent crying was 4.40 in ASD. The likelihood of being misdiagnosed with IC in this group was 78%.

CONCLUSION

The rate of IC is not increased in patients with ASD, but infants with excessive crying should be very thoroughly evaluated before being diagnosed with IC. In particular, persistent crying in infants (i.e. excessive crying with late onset and long duration) may be an early symptom of ASD.

Acetaminophen, antibiotics, ear infection, breastfeeding, vitamin D drops, and autism: an epidemiological study

BACKGROUND

While many studies have examined environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), much of the research focus has been on prenatal or perinatal factors. Yet, the postnatal environment may affect the risk of ASD as well.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether a set of five postnatal variables are associated with ASD. These variables are: acetaminophen exposure, antibiotic exposure, incidence of ear infection, decreased duration of breastfeeding, and decreased consumption of oral vitamin D drops.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An Internet-based survey was conducted. Participants were parents living in the USA with at least one biological child between 3 and 12 years of age. Potential participants were informed about the survey via postings on social media, websites, and listservs and were offered an opportunity to participate in a raffle as well. Participants were also recruited through the Interactive Autism Network.

RESULTS

There were 1,741 completed survey responses. After exclusions, there remained 1,001 responses associated with children with ASD (cases) and 514 responses associated with children who do not have ASD (controls). In this data set, doses of postnatal acetaminophen (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.016, CI: 1.003-1.032, p=0.026), courses of postnatal antibiotics (aOR 1.103, CI: 1.046-1.168, p<0.001), incidence of postnatal ear infection (aOR 1.137, CI: 1.046-1.236, p=0.003), and decreased duration of breastfeeding (aOR 0.948, CI: 0.932-0.965, p<0.001) are all associated with ASD when adjusted for eight demographic variables. A weak association between oral vitamin D drop exposure and ASD was also found when adjusted for breastfeeding and demographics (aOR 1.025, CI: 0.995-1.056, p=0.102).

CONCLUSION

This study adds to evidence that postnatal acetaminophen use, postnatal antibiotic use, incidence of ear infection, and early weaning are associated with an increased risk of ASD. It also finds that postnatal oral vitamin D drops are weakly associated with ASD when adjusted for breastfeeding and demographics.

Narratives of mothers of children with autism spectrum disorders: focus on eating behavior

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the eating behavior of individuals with autism through their mothers' narratives.

METHODS

The study of narratives was used to report on the narrators' experiences. Data on the eating habits of individuals with autism were collected using semi-structured interviews held individually with the mothers. The interviews were recorded, transcribed and codified using the NVivo software program.

RESULTS

Eighteen mothers of boys/young men with autism participated in the study. Analysis yielded three major categories: eating patterns, the family's attitudes to the child's eating habits, and food-related behavior.

CONCLUSION

Results show that autism-related factors may affect the child's food choices. Environmental factors, particularly the parents' behavior, may also play a decisive role, both in reinforcing the child's food choices and in encouraging a healthier and more diversified diet. Professionals should instruct parents regarding their decisive role in reinforcing or discouraging inappropriate mealtime behavior in children with autism.

EARLY REGULATION IN CHILDREN WHO ARE LATER DIAGNOSED WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER. A LONGITUDINAL STUDY WITHIN THE DANISH NATIONAL BIRTH COHORT

Studies have shown that children later diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in their first years of life might show symptoms in main developmental areas and that these signs might be sensed by the parents. The present study investigated in a large birth cohort if children later diagnosed with ASD had deviations at 6 and 18 months in areas such as the ability to self-regulate emotions, feeding, and sleeping. The study was based on prospective information collected from 76,322 mothers who participated in the Danish National Birth Cohort. When the children reached an average age of 11 years, 973 children with ASD and a control group of 300 children with intellectual disability (IDnoASD) were identified via Danish health registries. Associations were found between short periods of breast-feeding and the children later diagnosed with ASD and IDnoASD as well as associations at 18 months to deviations in regulation of emotions and activity. The similarities in these associations emphasize how difficult it is to distinguish between diagnoses early in life.

Brain carnitine deficiency causes nonsyndromic autism with an extreme male bias: A hypothesis

Could 10-20% of autism be prevented? We hypothesize that nonsyndromic or "essential" autism involves extreme male bias in infants who are genetically normal, but they develop deficiency of carnitine and perhaps other nutrients in the brain causing autism that may be amenable to early reversal and prevention. That brain carnitine deficiency might cause autism is suggested by reports of severe carnitine deficiency in autism and by evidence that TMLHE deficiency - a defect in carnitine biosynthesis - is a risk factor for autism. A gene on the X chromosome (SLC6A14) likely escapes random X-inactivation (a mixed epigenetic and genetic regulation) and could limit carnitine transport across the blood-brain barrier in boys compared to girls. A mixed, common gene variant-environment hypothesis is proposed with diet, minor illnesses, microbiome, and drugs as possible risk modifiers. The hypothesis can be tested using animal models and by a trial of carnitine supplementation in siblings of probands. Perhaps the lack of any Recommended Dietary Allowance for carnitine in infants should be reviewed. Also see the video abstract here: https://youtu.be/BuRH_jSjX5Y.

Association between breastfeeding duration and cognitive development, autistic traits and ADHD symptoms: a multicenter study in Spain

BACKGROUND

Several studies have related longer breastfeeding duration to better intellectual performance in children. By contrast, few studies have investigated the potential protective effects of breastfeeding against behavioral problems such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms, and even fewer on autism spectrum disorders (ASD) traits.

METHODS

We examined the association between breastfeeding duration and cognitive development, attention, ADHD symptoms, and autistic traits using data from the INMA Project, a Spanish multicenter birth-cohort study, and taking into account the intensity of breastfeeding. Duration of any, predominant, and exclusive breastfeeding was documented during infancy through maternal questionnaires. Children (N = 1,346; mean age = 4.9 y) were assessed using the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities, Conners' Kiddie Continuous Performance Test, criteria of the DSM-ADHD symptoms form list, and the Childhood Autism Spectrum Test.

RESULTS

After adjustment for several confounders, longer duration of breastfeeding was independently associated with better cognitive development and with fewer autistic traits.

CONCLUSION

This study provides further evidence of a positive association of breastfeeding with cognitive function apart from socio-environmental factors, and also suggests a protective role against autistic traits. Results are in agreement with recommendations for prolonged breastfeeding duration to promote child development.

Breastfeeding Trends and Determinants: Implications and recommendations for Gulf Cooperation Council countries

Optimal breastfeeding practices entail the early initiation of breastfeeding soon after delivery of the baby, exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life and the continuation of breastfeeding complemented by solid food up until two years of age. Breastfeeding has wide-ranging health benefits for both the mother and her child; however, many factors contribute to low rates of exclusive breastfeeding. This article highlights the benefits of optimal breastfeeding as well as trends and determinants associated with breastfeeding both worldwide and in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. Strategies to optimise breastfeeding and overcome breastfeeding barriers in the GCC region are recommended, including community health and education programmes and 'baby-friendly' hospital initiatives. Advocates of breastfeeding are needed at the national, community and family levels. In addition, more systematic research should be conducted to examine breastfeeding practices and the best strategies to promote breastfeeding in this region.

Long-term neurodevelopmental benefits of breastfeeding

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of an infant#$#apos;s life, with continuation of breastfeeding for at least a year or as mutually desired by mother and child. A robust body of research literature documenting the short-term medical, developmental, and emotional benefits of breastfeeding for infants and toddlers supports this position. This article reviews the neurodevelopmental benefits of breastfeeding as it relates to preschool and school-age children, with particular emphasis on cognitive development, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorder.

RECENT FINDINGS

The majority of research studies examining breastfeeding and long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes suggest that children who breastfeed for longer than 6 months have better cognitive outcomes, lower risk of developing attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and lower risk of being diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder.

SUMMARY

Pediatricians play a critical role in educating and counseling families about infant nutrition and feeding. Along with the many positive short-term medical effects that breastfeeding confers, physicians should be aware of the growing body of research suggesting that there are also significant long-term neurodevelopmental benefits of breastfeeding.

Maternal and birth risk factors for children screening positive for autism spectrum disorders on M-CHAT-R

This study was carried out to screen children aged 16-30 months, attending pediatric outpatient department of JIPMER, Puducherry, during June to August 2014, for ASD using modified checklist for autism in toddlers-revised (MCHAT-R) and to find association between maternal, birth and postnatal risk factors with risk of ASD. A total of 350 mother-child pairs with children aged between 16 and 30 months were recruited. M-CHAT-R was administered to all mothers to screen for ASD along with risk checklist. Based on screen result children were classified as ASD (high risk) and no ASD (low and medium risk) group. The association between risk factors and screen positivity for ASD was studied using odds ratio. According to our study, 33 (9.4%) screened positive for ASD. Mean age was 21 months. High mean paternal age at birth (P value 0.025), need for resuscitation at birth (OR 3.4, 95% CI 1.47-8.10), NICU stay >12h (OR 4.7, 95% CI 2.26-9.94), late initiation of breastfeeding (OR 3.9, 95% CI 1.83-8.39), neonatal seizures (OR 11.8, 95% CI 5.38-26.25) were associated with screen positivity for ASD. After adjusting for confounding, neonatal seizures, and maternal concern about child development were associated with increased odds of screening positive for ASD whereas exclusive breast feeding in the first 6 months of life is associated with decreased odds. Screening for ASD in children with above risk factors might help in early initiation of remedial interventions.

Implications of Oxytocin in Human Linguistic Cognition: From Genome to Phenome

The neurohormone oxytocin (OXT) has been found to mediate the regulation of complex socioemotional cognition in multiple ways both in humans and other animals. Recent studies have investigated the effects of OXT in different levels of analysis (from genetic to behavioral) chiefly targeting its impact on the social component and only indirectly indicating its implications in other components of our socio-interactive abilities. This article aims at shedding light onto how OXT might be modulating the multimodality that characterizes our higher-order linguistic abilities (vocal-auditory-attentional-memory-social systems). Based on evidence coming from genetic, EEG, fMRI, and behavioral studies, I attempt to establish the promises of this perspective with the goal of stressing the need for neuropeptide treatments to enter clinical practice.

Low-level lead exposure and autistic behaviors in school-age children

INTRODUCTION

The association between lead exposure and autism spectrum disorder is inconclusive. We hypothesized an association between higher blood lead concentrations and more autistic behaviors, including impaired social interactions and communication, stereotypical behaviors, and restricted interests, among school-age children.

METHODS

Data from 2473 Korean children aged 7-8years who had no prior history of developmental disorders were analyzed. Two follow-up surveys were conducted biennially until the children reached 11-12years of age. Blood lead concentrations were measured at every survey, and autistic behaviors were evaluated at 11-12years of age using the Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ) and Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS). The associations of blood lead concentration with ASSQ and SRS scores were analyzed using negative binomial, logistic, and linear regression models.

RESULTS

Blood lead concentrations at 7-8years of age (geometric mean: 1.64μg/dL), but not at 9-10 and 11-12years of age, were associated with more autistic behaviors at 11-12years of age, according to the ASSQ (β=0.151; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.061, 0.242) and SRS (β=2.489; 95% CI: 1.378, 3.600). SRS subscale analysis also revealed associations between blood lead concentrations and social awareness, cognition, communication, motivation, and mannerisms.

CONCLUSION

Even low blood lead concentrations at 7-8years of age are associated with more autistic behaviors at 11-12years of age, underscoring the need for continued efforts to reduce lead exposure.

Stress, anxiety, and depression among parents of children with autism spectrum disorder in Oman: a case-control study

Previous studies carried out in Euro-American populations have unequivocally indicated that psychological disorders of the CASD (caregivers of children with autism spectrum disorder) are marked with high levels of stress, anxiety, and depression. This finding has been attributed to the reaction of having to care for a child with neurodevelopmental disorders. While there have been reports on autism spectrum disorder in Arab/Islamic countries such as Oman, there is no study from this region, to our knowledge, reporting the performance of indices of stress, anxiety, and depression among CASD. This study aimed to examine whether there is variation in the performance of indices of stress, depression, and anxiety explored via Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale 21 among CASD, caregivers of children with intellectual disabilities, and caregivers of typically developing children. All indices of stress, depression, and anxiety were higher in CASD compared to other caregivers in the control group. This study corroborates with other studies carried out in other populations that caring for children impacts the mental health status of caregivers. Therefore, there are strong grounds to contemplate the mechanism to help such a vulnerable group of family caregivers.

Differential neurogenic effects of casein-derived opioid peptides on neuronal stem cells: implications for redox-based epigenetic changes

Food-derived peptides, such as β-casomorphin BCM7, have potential to cross the gastrointestinal tract and blood-brain barrier and are associated with neurological disorders and neurodevelopmental disorders. We previously established a novel mechanism through which BCM7 affects the antioxidant levels in neuronal cells leading to inflammatory consequences. In the current study, we elucidated the effects of casein-derived peptides on neuronal development by using the neurogenesis of neural stem cells (NSCs) as an experimental model. First, the transient changes in intracellular thiol metabolites during NSC differentiation (neurogenesis) were investigated. Next, the neurogenic effects of food-derived opioid peptides were measured, along with changes in intracellular thiol metabolites, redox status and global DNA methylation levels. We observed that the neurogenesis of NSCs was promoted by human BCM7 to a greater extent, followed by A2-derived BCM9 in contrast to bovine BCM7, which induced increased astrocyte formation. The effect was most apparent when human BCM7 was administered for 1day starting on 3days postplating, consistent with immunocytochemistry. Furthermore, neurogenic changes regulated by bovine BCM7 and morphine were associated with an increase in the glutathione/glutathione disulfide ratio and a decrease in the S-adenosylmethionine/S-adenosylhomocysteine ratio, indicative of changes in the redox and the methylation states. Finally, bovine BCM7 and morphine decreased DNA methylation in differentiating NSCs. In conclusion, these results suggest that food-derived opioid peptides and morphine regulated neurogenesis and differentiation of NSCs through changes in the redox state and epigenetic regulation.

Oxytocin opposes effects of bacterial endotoxin on ER-stress signaling in Caco2BB gut cells

BACKGROUND

The neuropeptide neuromodulator and hormone oxytocin (OT) activates signaling pathways involved in mRNA translation in response to endoplasmic reticulum stress and reduces inflammation associated with experimental colitis in rats. The anti-inflammatory effects of OT may serve a vital role in the development, survival and function of newborn-type enterocytes during microbial gut colonization, which coincides with the milk suckling period when OT receptor expression peaks in the gut. Furthermore, mice deficient in the OT receptor have abnormal gut structure and function, underscoring OT's developmental importance.

METHODS

We tested the effect of OT upon lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced markers of the inflammatory response in Caco2BB gut cells in vitro using automated immunocapillary electrophoresis.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that OT suppresses NF-κB signaling and presumably inflammatory transcriptional programs, which are unleashed by LPS through the modulation of IκB. We show that OT counteracts LPS-elicited silencing of the unfolded protein response, a pathway limiting endoplasmic reticulum stress by suppressing protein translation. OT selectively activates dsRNA-activated kinase (PKR), X-box binding protein 1 (XBP1), immunoglobulin binding protein (BiP), A20 (TNFα-induced protein 3) and inositol requiring enzyme 1a (IRE1a). OT inactivates eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2a (eIF2a) without significant activation of protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK).

CONCLUSIONS

Mild, preemptive stimulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress sensors by OT may precondition newborn enterocytes to resist apoptosis associated with inflammation and may support their differentiation and development by modulating cellular metabolism.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

OT may protect enterocytes and other cell types, such as neurons, from stress-related complications during postnatal development.

Assessment of Hair Aluminum, Lead, and Mercury in a Sample of Autistic Egyptian Children: Environmental Risk Factors of Heavy Metals in Autism

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The etiological factors involved in the etiology of autism remain elusive and controversial, but both genetic and environmental factors have been implicated. The aim of this study was to assess the levels and possible environmental risk factors and sources of exposure to mercury, lead, and aluminum in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) as compared to their matched controls.

METHODS

One hundred ASD children were studied in comparison to 100 controls. All participants were subjected to clinical evaluation and measurement of mercury, lead, and aluminum through hair analysis which reflects past exposure.

RESULTS

The mean Levels of mercury, lead, and aluminum in hair of the autistic patients were significantly higher than controls. Mercury, lead, and aluminum levels were positively correlated with maternal fish consumptions, living nearby gasoline stations, and the usage of aluminum pans, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Levels of mercury, lead, and aluminum in the hair of autistic children are higher than controls. Environmental exposure to these toxic heavy metals, at key times in development, may play a causal role in autism.

Breastfeeding and language outcomes: A review of the literature

Many researchers have investigated the potential impact of breastfeeding in infancy on a child's subsequent development, but only a small subset of these studies considers language development and impairment. This paper reviews that literature, discussing postnatal neurodevelopment, potential mechanisms for dietary influences on communication outcomes, studies of typically developing children, and studies of children with communication concerns. For population based studies of language development, a modest but statistically robust relationship is seen across large samples that account for breastfeeding exclusivity. A similar protective relationship is seen in studies that evaluate the relationship between breastfeeding and language disorders; effect sizes are typically larger in these papers. Implications for researchers and service providers are reviewed.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Readers will be able to describe possible mechanisms by which early diet might influence neurodevelopment. They will be able to describe the relationships observed between diet in infancy and language outcomes in large population-based studies, as well as the trends observed in studies of the relationship between infant diet and communication impairment.

Dysregulated Breastfeeding Behaviors in Children Later Diagnosed With Autism

Newborn breastfeeding behaviors have not been characterized in children later diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In a qualitative interview, 16 mothers (28-56 years) of children with ASD described their 19 full-term infants' (38-42 weeks' gestational age) breastfeeding behaviors. Nine mothers described their infants as demonstrating a dysregulated breastfeeding pattern of sucking without stopping of their own volition. The infants' latch, weight gain, and other behaviors were recalled as not problematic. This feature of dysregulated feeding pattern in infancy has not been reported previously for children with ASD. If supported by future research, the pattern of a dysregulated feeding pattern in newborns could be evaluated by clinicians in the general pediatric population and/or at-risk infant siblings of children with ASD.

Peripartum depression and anxiety as an integrative cross domain target for psychiatric preventative measures

Exposure to high levels of early life stress has been identified as a potent risk factor for neurodevelopmental delays in infants, behavioral problems and autism in children, but also for several psychiatric illnesses in adulthood, such as depression, anxiety, autism, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Despite having robust adverse effects on both mother and infant, the pathophysiology of peripartum depression and anxiety are poorly understood. The objective of this review is to highlight the advantages of using an integrated approach addressing several behavioral domains in both animal and clinical studies of peripartum depression and anxiety. It is postulated that a greater focus on integrated cross domain studies will lead to advances in treatments and preventative measures for several disorders associated with peripartum depression and anxiety.

Are Attributes of Pregnancy and the Delivery Room Experience Related to Development of Autism? A Review of the Perinatal and Labor Risk Factors and Autism

Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder marked by severe deficits in social communication and interactions. It is a complex condition that lacks an established preventive method, warranting a need for research to identify possible environmental triggers. The identification of external factors particularly perinatal risk factors forms the initial critical step in preventing and alleviating risks. We conducted a literature review to assess evidence suggested in the worldwide literature. Perinatal risk factors that have a suggested association include β2 adrenergic receptor agonists, labor induction and augmentation, maternal infection and disease (i.e., antiphospholipid syndrome), antiepileptic drugs, cocaine use, and oral supplements. Smoking has not been found to have a direct association. Pollutants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, artificial insemination, and fertility medications may have a link, but results are often conflicted. Factors related to the delivery room experience may be associated with meconium aspiration syndrome, birth weight, and labor time. Several risk factors during the pregnancy and labor periods have been associated with autism; yet further studies with large populations are needed to establish definitive associations. The fact that several risk factors during the prenatal and labor periods are implicated in autism should prompt the medical community to focus on the pregnancy and labor periods as preventive measures to curb the incidence of autism.

Gene-environment interactions in human health: case studies and strategies for developing new paradigms and research methodologies

THE SYNERGISTIC EFFECTS OF GENES AND THE ENVIRONMENT ON HEALTH ARE EXPLORED IN THREE CASE STUDIES: adult lactase persistence, autism spectrum disorders, and the metabolic syndrome, providing examples of the interactive complexities underlying these phenotypes. Since the phenotypes are the initial targets of evolutionary processes, understanding the specific environmental contexts of the genetic, epigenetic, and environmental changes associated with these phenotypes is essential in predicting their health implications. Robust databases must be developed on the local scale to deconstruct both the population substructure and the unique components of the environment that stimulate geographically specific changes in gene expression patterns. To produce these databases and make valid predictions, new, locally focused, and information-dense models are needed that incorporate data on evolutionary ecology, environmental complexity, local geographic patterns of gene expression, and population substructure.