Neonatal and fetal exposure to trans-fatty acids retards early growth and adiposity while adversely affecting glucose in mice

Effects of a High Trans Fatty Acid Diet on Kidney-, Liver-, and Heart-Associated Diseases in a Rabbit Model

Trans fatty acids are specific unsaturated fats found in processed foods that undergo hydrogenation, leading to hepatic disorders such as metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) and conditions like CVD and CKD. The effects of different food samples containing trans fatty acids (elaidic and oleic acid) on the liver, heart, and kidney through antioxidant enzyme activity were investigated in animal models. Liver function tests (ALT, ALP, AST, and LDH), heart biomarker levels (CPK, TC, HDL, LDL, and triglycerides), and kidney biomarker levels (serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, and serum uric acid) were examined in serum of rabbits and the histopathology of liver tissues. Results showed that these biomarkers were more elevated in the Mujahid Ghee group than in the normal control, oleic acid, and Kausar Ghee groups. The concentration of antioxidant markers such as peroxidase, glutathione, catalase, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, and superoxide dismutase were lower in the Mujahid Ghee group. HPLC showed that Mujahid Ghee had the highest quantified value of elaidic acid among all selected samples. Overall, this study demonstrated that elaidic acid in its purest form aggravated MAFLD in rabbit livers and provoked CVK and CVD.

Trans isomeric fatty acids in human milk and their role in infant health and development

It is well known that long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) play an important role in neurodevelopment in the perinatal life. The most important source of these fatty acids is the diet, however, they can also be formed in the human body from their shorter chain precursors, the essential fatty acids. Since the WHO recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months after birth, the exclusive source of these fatty acids for breastfed infants is human milk, which can be influenced by the mother's diet. Unsaturated fatty acids can have either cis or trans configuration double bond in their chain with distinct physiological effects. Cis isomeric unsaturated fatty acids have several beneficial effects, while trans isomers are mostly detrimental, because of their similar structure to saturated fatty acids. Trans fatty acids (TFAs) can be further subdivided into industrial (iTFA) and ruminant-derived trans fatty acids (rTFA). However, the physiological effects of these two TFA subgroups may differ. In adults, dietary intake of iTFA has been linked to atherosclerosis, insulin resistance, obesity, chronic inflammation, and increased development of certain cancers, among other diseases. However, iTFAs can have a negative impact on health not only in adulthood but in childhood too. Results from previous studies have shown that iTFAs have a significant negative effect on LCPUFA levels in the blood of newborns and infants. In addition, iTFAs can affect the growth and development of infants, and animal studies suggest that they might even have lasting negative effects later in life. Since the only source of TFAs in the human body is the diet, the TFA content of breast milk may determine the TFA supply of breastfed infants and thus affect the levels of LCPUFAs important for neurodevelopment and the health of infants. In this review, we aim to provide an overview of the TFA content in human milk available in the literature and their potential effects on infant health and development.

Exposure to trans fat during the developmental period ofDrosophila melanogasteralters the composition of fatty acids in the head and induces depression-like behavior

Given the importance of understanding the disorders caused by trans fatty acids (TFAs), this study sought to add different concentrations hydrogenated vegetable fat (HVF) to the diet of Drosophila melanogaster during the developmental period and evaluate the effects on neurobehavioral parameters. Longevity, hatching rate, and behavioral functions were assessed, such as negative geotaxis, forced swimming, light/dark, mating, and aggressiveness. The fatty acids (FAs) present in the heads of the flies were quantified as well as serotonin (5HT) and dopamine (DA) levels. Our findings showed that flies that received HVF at all concentrations during development showed reduced longevity and hatching rates, in addition to increased depression-like, anxious-like, anhedonia-like, and aggressive behaviors. As for the biochemical parameters, there was a more significant presence of TFA in flies exposed to HVF at all concentrations evaluated and lower 5HT and DA levels. This study shows that HVF during the developmental phase can cause neurological changes and consequently induce behavioral disorders, thereby highlighting the importance of the type of FA offered in the early stages of life.

Delayed effects of radiation in adipose tissue reflect progenitor damage and not cellular senescence

The pathogenesis of many age-related diseases is linked to cellular senescence, a state of inflammation-inducing, irreversible cell cycle arrest. The consequences and mechanisms of age-associated cellular senescence are often studied using in vivo models of radiation exposure. However, it is unknown whether radiation induces persistent senescence, like that observed in ageing. We performed analogous studies in mice and monkeys, where young mice and rhesus macaques received sub-lethal doses of ionizing radiation and were observed for ~ 15% of their expected lifespan. Assessments of 8-hydroxy-2' -deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), senescence-associated beta-galactosidase (SAβ-gal), and p16Ink4a and p21 were performed on mitotic and post-mitotic tissues - liver and adipose tissue - 6 months and 3 years post-exposure for the mice and monkeys, respectively. No elevations in 8-OHdG, SA-βgal staining, or p16 Ink4a or p21 gene or protein expression were found in mouse and monkey liver or adipose tissue compared to control animals. Despite no evidence of senescence, progenitor cell dysfunction persisted after radiation exposure, as indicated by lower in situ CD34+ adipose cells (p = 0.03), and deficient adipose stromal vascular cell proliferation (p < 0.05) and differentiation (p = 0.04) ex vivo. Our investigation cautions that employing radiation to study senescence-related processes should be limited to the acute post-exposure period and that stem cell damage likely underpins the dysfunction associated with delayed effects of radiation.

Intramuscular adipocyte and fatty acid differences between high-fat and control rabbit groups subject to a restricted diet

Fatty acids of intramuscular fat (IMF) in rabbits can influence meat quality, but it is unclear which fatty acids benefit to human health. A rabbit model of weight gain and weight loss was constructed using two rabbit groups and two growth stages. Stage 1 included control group1 fed a commercial diet(CG1) and experimental group1 fed a high fat diet (EG1). Stage 2 include control group2(CG2) and experimental group2 (EG2) both fed a restricted commercial diet. We detected differences in blood biochemical indicators as well as changes in intramuscular adipose cells and intramuscular fatty acid content in control and experiment groups at two stages. High fat induction can make rabbits become obese, have higher concentrations of glucose (GLU), total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) and free fatty acid (FFA), and lower concentrations of insulin (INS). In addition, a high-fat diet promotes hypertrophy of precursor adipocytes in femoral muscles. Conversely, a restricted diet causes weight loss, decreases the concentration of TG, FFA, and INS in CG2 and EG2, and increases the deposition of unsaturated fatty acids in the femoral muscle. The content of monounsaturated trans oleic acid (C18:1n-9T) in EG2 was significantly higher than in CG2, whereas oleic acid (C18:1n-9C) was significantly lower in EG2 than in CG2. The polyunsaturated fatty acids Linolenate (C18:3 n-3) and cis-5,8,11,14,17-Eicosapentaenoate (C20:5 n-3) increased in CG2 and EG2. The content of Linoleate (C18:2 n-6) and γ-Linolenic acid (C18:3 n-6) significantly increased in CG2. The content of cis-11,14-Eicosatrienoic acid (C20:2) decreased significantly in CG2, but increased significantly in EG2.Thus, a high-fat diet can increase the formation of unhealthy fatty acids. Conversely, weight loss due to a restricted diet leads to an increase in unsaturated fatty acids in the femoral muscle, indicating that it reduces obesity symptoms and it may improve meat quality in rabbit.

Association of high maternal triglyceride levels early and late in pregnancy with adverse outcomes: A retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Excess maternal triglyceride (mTG) exposure during early or late pregnancy increases risks of adverse pregnancy outcomes. However, it is inconclusive whether persistently high maternal triglyceride during whole pregnancy has more negative associations.

OBJECTIVE

To explore whether persistently high maternal triglyceride (mTG) levels from early to late pregnancy further increases the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes.

METHODS

We included 12,715 women who had a singleton birth and who underwent routine serum lipid screenings in both early (9-13 weeks) and late (28-42 weeks) pregnancy during May 2018 to July 2019 in a university-based maternity center. Risks for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), preeclampsia, preterm delivery, small/large for gestational age (LGA) were estimated.

RESULTS

Elevated mTG levels during early pregnancy were associated with increased risks of preterm delivery (AOR, 1.52; 95% CI, 1.21 to 1.90), preeclampsia (1.75; 1.29 to 2.36), gestational diabetes mellitus (1.95; 1.69 to 2.25), and LGA (1.28; 1.12 to 1.46). Compared with those with low mTG levels both in the 1st and 3rd trimesters, persistently high mTG levels increased the risks of preeclampsia (2.53; 1.66 to 3.84), GDM (1.97; 1.57 to 2.47), and LGA (1.68; 1.37 to 2.07). However, persistently high mTG levels only slightly increased risk of LGA when compared with high mTG levels during the 1st trimester alone (1.34, 1.01 to 1.77).

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated mTG levels during early pregnancy not in late pregnancy could be the crucial risk factor associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. These results suggest the importance of lipid screenings and preventions during early pregnancy, which may help to improve pregnancy outcomes.

Impact of Maternal Diet on Human Milk Composition Among Lactating Women in Latvia

Background and objectives: Many studies indicate that the maternal diet is an important factor affecting human milk composition. Human milk composition among lactating women in Latvia, as well as the maternal diet during lactation, has not been sufficiently studied. The aim of this research was to assess dietary habits and macronutrient intake among lactating women in Latvia and to examine the effect of diet on human milk composition. Materials and Methods: Research was conducted between November 2016 and December 2017. Mature human milk samples (n = 61) along with a 72h food diary, a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), and a questionnaire about maternal and infant characteristics were obtained from voluntary women who were recruited via an invitation published in a social media member group for nursing mothers. Fat content in human milk was determined by LVS ISO 2446:2008, protein content was determined by LVS EN ISO 8968-1:2014, lactose was determined by ISO 22662:2007, and the fatty acid profile was analyzed using gas chromatography. Dietary data were evaluated using the Finnish food composition database Fineli, release 19 (3 March 2018). Results: Median values for fat, protein, and lactose in mature human milk were 4.40%, 1.08%, and 6.52%, respectively. Predominant fatty acids in human milk were oleic acid (C18:1 n9c), palmitic acid (C16:0), and linoleic acid (C18:2 n6c) at 34.60%, 24.00%, and 11.00% of total fatty acids, respectively. The trans elaidic acid (C18:1 n9t) level was <0.10% in all human milk samples. Significant, positive associations (p < 0.05) were found between maternal dietary intake of linoleic, α-linolenic, docosahexaenoic, total cis-monounsaturated, total cis-polyunsaturated, and total n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, the ratio of n-6/n-3, and the level of these fatty acids in human milk. Total energy and carbohydrate intake among participants were lower, but total fat, saturated fat, and sugar intake were higher than recommended. Protein, linoleic acid, and α-linolenic acid intake were adequate, but docosahexaenoic acid intake was noticeably lower than recommended. Women should be supported with information regarding their nutritional needs during lactation and the possible impact of diet on human milk composition. Conclusion: Macronutrient (fat, protein, and lactose) content in human milk is not affected by maternal diet. Conversely, the human milk fatty acid profile is affected by the immediate diet consumed by the mother. Habitual dietary habits can also impact the fatty acid profile of human milk.

A potential high risk for fatty liver disease was found in mice generated after assisted reproductive techniques

Abnormal gametogenesis and embryonic development may lead to poor health status of the offspring. The operations involved in the assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) occur during the key stage of gametogenesis and early embryonic development. To assess the potential risk of abnormal lipid metabolism in the liver of adult ARTs offspring, two ARTs mice models derived from preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD group) and in vitro cultured embryos without biopsy (IVEM group) were constructed. And control mice were from in vivo naturally conceived (Normal group). The results showed that ARTs offspring had increased body weight and body fat content comparing to normal group. An increasing volume and amount of lipid droplets as well as lipid droplet fusion were found in the hepatocytes of ARTs mice, and a significantly increased liver TG content was also shown in the ARTs mice, which due to the increased TG synthesis and decreased TG transport in the liver. All the results indicated that the manipulations involved in ARTs might play an important role in the lipid accumulation of adult offspring. By analyzing the DNA methylation profiles of 7.5dpc embryos, we proposed that methylation deregulation of the genes related to liver development in ARTs embryos might contribute to the abnormal phenotype in the offspring. The study demonstrated that ARTs procedures have adverse effect on liver development which resulted in abnormal lipid metabolism and induced the potential high risk of fatty liver in adulthood.

Fetal and neonatal exposure to trans-fatty acids impacts on susceptibility to atherosclerosis in apo E*3 Leiden mice

Nutrition during pregnancy can impact on the susceptibility of the offspring to CVD. Postnatal consumption of trans-fatty acids (TFA), associated with partially hydrogenated vegetable oil (PHVO), increases the risk of atherosclerosis, whereas evidence for those TFA associated with ruminant-derived dairy products and meat remain equivocal. In this study, we investigate the impact of maternal consumption of dietary PHVO (P) and ruminant milk fat (R) on the development of atherosclerosis in their offspring, using the transgenic apoE*3 Leiden mouse. Dams were fed either chow (C) or one of three high-fat diets: a diet reflecting the SFA content of a ‘Western’ diet (W) or one enriched with either P or R. Diets were fed during either pregnancy alone or pregnancy and lactation. Weaned offspring were then transferred to an atherogenic diet for 12 weeks. Atherosclerosis was assessed as lipid staining in cross-sections of the aorta. There was a significant effect of maternal diet during pregnancy on development of atherosclerosis (P=0·013) in the offspring with those born of mothers fed R or P during pregnancy displaying smaller lesions that those fed C or W. This was not associated with changes in total or lipoprotein cholesterol. Continuing to feed P during lactation increased atherosclerosis compared with that seen in offspring of dams fed P only during pregnancy (P<0·001). No such effect was seen in those from mothers fed R (P=0·596) or W (P=901). We conclude that dietary TFA have differing effects on cardiovascular risk at different stages of the lifecycle.

The trans fatty acid elaidate affects the global DNA methylation profile of cultured cells and in vivo

Background

The deleterious effects of dietary trans fatty acids (tFAs) on human health are well documented. Although significantly reduced or banned in various countries, tFAs may trigger long-term responses that would represent a valid human health concern, particularly if tFAs alter the epigenome.

Methods

Based on these considerations, we asked whether the tFA elaidic acid (EA; tC18:1) has any effects on global DNA methylation and the transcriptome in cultured human THP-1 monocytes, and whether the progeny of EA-supplemented dams during either pregnancy or lactation in mice (n = 20 per group) show any epigenetic change after exposure.

Results

EA induced a biphasic effect on global DNA methylation in THP-1 cells, i.e. hypermethylation in the 1–50 μM concentration range, followed by hypomethylation up to the 200 μM dose. On the other hand, the cis isomer oleic acid (OA), a fatty acid with documented beneficial effects on human health, exerted a distinct response, i.e. its effects were weaker and only partially overlapping with EA’s. The maximal differential response between EA and OA was observed at the 50 μM dose. Array expression data revealed that EA induced a pro-inflammatory and adipogenic transcriptional profile compared with OA, although with modest effects on selected (n = 9) gene promoter methylation. In mice, maternal EA supplementation in utero or via the breastmilk induced global adipose tissue DNA hypermethylation in the progeny, that was detectable postnatally at the age of 3 months.

Conclusion

We document that global DNA hypermethylation is a specific and consistent response to EA in cell culture and in mice, and that EA may exert long-term effects on the epigenome following maternal exposure.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12944-016-0243-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Clinical Chemistry Reference Intervals for C57BL/6J, C57BL/6N, and C3HeB/FeJ Mice (Mus musculus)

Although various mouse inbred strains are widely used to investigate disease mechanisms and to establish new therapeutic strategies, sex-specific reference intervals for laboratory diagnostic analytes that are generated from large numbers of animals have been unavailable. In this retrospective study, we screened data from more than 12,000 mice phenotyped in the German Mouse Clinic from January 2006 through June 2014 and selected animals with the genetic background of C57BL/6J, C57BL/6N, or C3HeB/FeJ. In addition, we distinguished between the C57BL/6NTac substrain and C57BL/6N mice received from other vendors. The corresponding data sets of electrolytes (sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, inorganic phosphate), lipids (cholesterol, triglyceride), and enzyme activities (ALT, AST, ALP, α-amylase) and urea, albumin, and total protein levels were analyzed. Significant effects of age and sex on these analytes were identified, and strain- or substrain- and sex-specific reference intervals for 90- to 135-d-old mice were calculated. In addition, we include an overview of the literature that reports clinical chemistry values for wild-type mice of different strains. Our results support researchers interpreting clinical chemistry values from various mouse mutants and corresponding wild-type controls based on the examined strains and substrains.

Type of fatty acids in maternal diets during pregnancy and/or lactation and metabolic consequences of the offspring

During pregnancy and/or lactation, maternal nutrition is related to the adequate development of the fetus, newborn and future adult, likely by modifications in fetal programming and epigenetic regulation. Fetal programming is characterized by adaptive responses to specific environmental conditions during early life stages, which may alter gene expression and permanently affect the structure and function of several organs and tissues, thus influencing the susceptibility to metabolic disorders. Regarding lipid metabolism during the first two trimesters of pregnancy, the maternal body accumulates fat, whereas in late pregnancy, the lipolytic activity in the maternal adipose tissue is increased. However, an excess or deficiency of certain fatty acids may lead to adverse consequences to the fetuses and newborns. Fetal exposure to trans fatty acids appears to promote early deleterious effects in the offspring's health, thereby increasing the individual risk for developing metabolic diseases throughout life. Similarly, the maternal intake of saturated fatty acids seems to trigger alterations in the liver and adipose tissue function associated with insulin resistance and diabetes. The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), particularly long-chain PUFAs (long-chain PUFA-arachidonic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid), play an important and beneficial physiologic role in the offspring who receive this fatty acid during critical periods of development. Therefore, the maternal nutritional condition and fatty acid intake during pregnancy and/or lactation are critical factors that are strongly associated with normal fetal and postnatal development, which influence the modifications in fetal programming and in the individual risk for developing metabolic diseases throughout life.

Jussara (Euterpe edulis Mart.) supplementation during pregnancy and lactation modulates the gene and protein expression of inflammation biomarkers induced by trans-fatty acids in the colon of offspring

Maternal intake of trans-fatty acids (TFAs) in the perinatal period triggers a proinflammatory state in offspring. Anthocyanins contained in fruit are promising modulators of inflammation. This study investigated the effect of Jussara supplementation in the maternal diet on the proinflammatory state of the colon in offspring exposed to perinatal TFAs. On the first day of pregnancy rats were divided into four groups: control diet (C), control diet with 0.5% Jussara supplementation (CJ), diet enriched with hydrogenated vegetable fat, rich in TFAs (T), or T diet supplemented with 0.5% Jussara (TJ) during pregnancy and lactation. We showed that Jussara supplementation in maternal diet (CJ and TJ groups) reduced carcass lipid/protein ratios, serum lipids, glucose, IL-6, TNF-α, gene expression of IL-6R, TNF-αR (P < 0.05), TLR-4 (P < 0.01), and increase Lactobacillus spp. (P < 0.05) in the colon of offspring compared to the T group. The IL-10 (P = 0.035) and IL-10/TNF-α ratio (P < 0.01) was higher in the CJ group than in the T group. The 0.5% Jussara supplementation reverses the adverse effects of perinatal TFAs, improving lipid profiles, glucose levels, body composition, and gut microbiota and reducing low-grade inflammation in the colon of 21-day-old offspring, and could contribute to reducing chronic disease development.

Inducing Muscle Heat Shock Protein 70 Improves Insulin Sensitivity and Muscular Performance in Aged Mice

Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are molecular chaperones with roles in longevity and muscular preservation. We aimed to show elevating HSP70 improves indices of health span. Aged C57/BL6 mice acclimated to a western diet were randomized into: geranylgeranylacetone (GGA)-treated (100 mg/kg/d), biweekly heat therapy (HT), or control. The GGA and HT are well-known pharmacological and environmental inducers of HSP70, respectively. Assessments before and after 8 weeks of treatment included glycemic endpoints, body composition, and muscular endurance, power, and perfusion. An HT mice had more than threefold, and GGA mice had a twofold greater HSP70 compared with control. Despite comparable body compositions, both treatment groups had significantly better insulin sensitivity and insulin signaling capacity. Compared with baseline, HT mice ran 23% longer than at study start, which was significantly more than GGA or control. Hanging ability (muscular endurance) also tended to be best preserved in HT mice. Muscle power, contractile force, capillary perfusion, and innervation were not different. Heat treatment has a clear benefit on muscular endurance, whereas HT and GGA both improved insulin sensitivity. Different effects may relate to muscle HSP70 levels. An HSP induction could be a promising approach for improving health span in the aged mice.

Evidence for transgenerational metabolic programming in Drosophila

Worldwide epidemiologic studies have repeatedly demonstrated an association between prenatal nutritional environment, birth weight and susceptibility to adult diseases including obesity, cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Despite advances in mammalian model systems, the molecular mechanisms underlying this phenomenon are unclear, but might involve programming mechanisms such as epigenetics. Here we describe a new system for evaluating metabolic programming mechanisms using a simple, genetically tractable Drosophila model. We examined the effect of maternal caloric excess on offspring and found that a high-sugar maternal diet alters body composition of larval offspring for at least two generations, augments an obese-like phenotype under suboptimal (high-calorie) feeding conditions in adult offspring, and modifies expression of metabolic genes. Our data indicate that nutritional programming mechanisms could be highly conserved and support the use of Drosophila as a model for evaluating the underlying genetic and epigenetic contributions to this phenomenon.

Lasting effects on body weight and mammary gland gene expression in female mice upon early life exposure to n-3 but not n-6 high-fat diets

Exposure to an imbalance of nutrients prior to conception and during critical developmental periods can have lasting consequences on physiological processes resulting in chronic diseases later in life. Developmental programming has been shown to involve structural and functional changes in important tissues. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether early life diet has a programming effect on the mammary gland. Wild-type mice were exposed from 2 weeks prior to conception to 6 weeks of age to a regular low-fat diet, or to high-fat diets based on either corn oil or flaxseed oil. At 6 weeks of age, all mice were shifted to the regular low-fat diet until termination at 10 weeks of age. Early life exposure to a high-fat diet, either high in n-6 (corn oil) or in n-3 (flaxseed oil) polyunsaturated fatty acids, did not affect birth weight, but resulted in an increased body weight at 10 weeks of age. Transcriptome analyses of the fourth abdominal mammary gland revealed differentially expressed genes between the different treatment groups. Exposure to high-fat diet based on flaxseed oil, but not on corn oil, resulted in regulation of pathways involved in energy metabolism, immune response and inflammation. Our findings suggest that diet during early life indeed has a lasting effect on the mammary gland and significantly influences postnatal body weight gain, metabolic status, and signaling networks in the mammary gland of female offspring.

Effects of Intake of Maternal Dietary Elaidic Acids during Pregnancy and Lactation on the Fatty Acid Composition of Plasma, Erythrocyte Membrane, and Brain in Rat Pups

To investigate the effects of a dam's dietary elaidic acid (EA) intake during pregnancy and lactation on the fatty acid composition of plasma, erythrocyte membrane, and brain in rat pups, we fed two groups of dams either a soybean oil diet (SOD) or a shortening diet (SHD) containing soybean oil (10%) or shortening (10%), respectively. Although EA was not detected in the SOD, EA accounted for 25.3% of all fatty acid content in the SHD. On day 8 after birth, the EA levels in the stomach, plasma, and erythrocyte membrane of pups nursed by the dams fed the SHD were 11.6 ± 1.03%, 7.18 ± 1.20%, and 5.82 ± 1.00%, respectively. Although on day 8 after birth the EA level of the brains of pups nursed by SHD-fed dams was 0.56 ± 0.24%, EA was not detected on day 21 or day 82 after birth. These results suggest that EA intake during pregnancy and lactation supplies EA to plasma, remains in the erythrocyte membrane of pups, and moves into the brain in early infancy.

Early life factors and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a multifactorial disease, and its aetiology involves a complex interplay between genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors. In recent years, evidences from both human and animal experiments have correlated early life factors with programming diabetes risk in adult life. Fetal and neonatal period is crucial for organ development. Many maternal factors during pregnancy may increase the risk of diabetes of offsprings in later life, which include malnutrition, healthy (hyperglycemia and obesity), behavior (smoking, drinking, and junk food diet), hormone administration, and even stress. In neonates, catch-up growth, lactation, glucocorticoids administration, and stress have all been found to increase the risk of insulin resistance or T2DM. Unfavorable environments (socioeconomic situation and famine) or obesity also has long-term negative effects on children by causing increased susceptibility to T2DM in adults. We also address the potential mechanisms that may underlie the developmental programming of T2DM. Therefore, it might be possible to prevent or delay the risk for T2DM by improving pre- and/or postnatal factors.

Maternal lipid profile during early pregnancy and pregnancy complications and outcomes: the ABCD study

CONTEXT

Elevated lipid levels during late pregnancy are associated with complications and adverse outcome for both mother and newborn. However, it is inconclusive whether a disturbed lipid profile during early pregnancy has similar negative associations.

OBJECTIVE

Our objective was to investigate whether nonfasting maternal total cholesterol and triglyceride levels during early pregnancy are associated with six major adverse pregnancy outcomes.

METHODS

Data were derived from the Amsterdam Born Children and Their Development (ABCD) cohort study. Random blood samples of nonfasting total cholesterol and triglyceride levels were determined during early gestation (median = 13, interquartile range = 12-14 wk). Outcome measures were pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH), preeclampsia, preterm birth, small/large for gestational age (SGA/LGA), and child loss. Only nondiabetic women with singleton deliveries were included; the baseline sample consisted of 4008 women. Analysis for PIH and preeclampsia were performed in nulliparous women only (n = 2037).

RESULTS

Mean (sd) triglyceride and total cholesterol levels were 1.33 (0.55) and 4.98 (0.87) mmol/liter, respectively. The incidence of pregnancy complications and perinatal outcomes were as follows: PIH, 4.9%; preeclampsia, 3.7%; preterm birth, 5.3%; SGA, 9.3%; LGA, 9.3%; and child loss, 1.4%. After adjustments, every unit increase in triglycerides was linearly associated with an increased risk of PIH [odds ratio (OR) = 1.60, P = 0.021], preeclampsia (OR = 1.69, P = 0.018), LGA (OR = 1.48, P < 0.001), and induced preterm delivery (OR = 1.69, P = 0.006). No associations were found for SGA or child loss. Total cholesterol was not associated with any of the outcome measures.

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated maternal triglyceride levels measured during early pregnancy are associated with pregnancy complications and adverse pregnancy outcomes. These results suggest that future lifestyle programs in women of reproductive age with a focus on lowering triglyceride levels (i.e. diet, weight reduction, and physical activity) may help to prevent hypertensive complications during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes.

Maternal fat intake in rats alters 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 status and the epigenetic regulation of Fads2 in offspring liver

Poor prenatal nutrition, acting through epigenetic processes, induces persistent changes in offspring phenotype. We investigated the effect of maternal fat intake on polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) status and on the epigenetic regulation of Fads2, encoding Δ6 desaturase (rate limiting in PUFA synthesis), in the adult offspring. Rats (n=6 per dietary group) were fed either 3.5% (w/w), 7% (w/w) or 21% (w/w) butter or fish oil (FO) from 14 days preconception until weaning. Offspring (n=6 males and females per dietary group) were fed 4% (w/w) soybean oil until postnatal day 77. 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 levels were lower in liver phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine and plasma PC (all P<.0001) in offspring of dams fed 21% than 3.5% or 7% fat regardless of type. Hepatic Fads2 expression related inversely to maternal dietary fat. Fads2 messenger RNA expression correlated negatively with methylation of CpGs at −623, −394, −84 and −76 bases relative to the transcription start site (all P<.005). Methylation of these CpGs was higher in offspring of dams fed 21% than 3.5% or 7% fat; FO higher than butter. Feeding adult female rats 7% fat reduced 20:4n-6 status in liver PC and Fads2 expression and increased methylation of CpGs −623, −394, −84 and −76 that reversed in animals switched from 7% to 4% fat diets. These findings suggest that fat exposure during development induces persistent changes, while adults exhibit a transient response, in hepatic PUFA status in offspring through epigenetic regulation of Fads2. Thus, epigenetic regulation of Fads2 may contribute to short- and long-term regulation of PUFA synthesis.