To be a male or a female flower, a question of ethylene in cucurbits

Development and application of a sex-linked marker for Herpetospermum pedunculosum based on whole-genome resequencing

Sex-specific DNA markers are effective tools for sex identification and sex-controlled breeding of dioecious organisms. The seeds of the dioecious Herpetospermum pedunculosum are utilized in traditional Chinese medicine, and the development of sex-linked markers for seedlings is crucial for enhancing the number of female plants. In this study, we screened sex-specific markers based on whole-genome resequencing of 20 male and 24 female H. pedunculosum individuals, and validated a male-specific DNA fragment of 505 bp among 80 individuals from four populations using simple PCR. The findings provide a reliable male-specific marker for the sex identification of H. pedunculosum seedlings.

The calcium-dependent protein kinase CmaCPK4 regulates sex determination in pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima D.)

Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima D.) is typically monoecious with individual male and female flowers, and its yield is associated with the degree of femaleness, i.e. the ratio of female to male flowers produced by the plant. Subgynoecy represents a sex form with a high degree of femaleness, but the regulatory mechanisms in pumpkin remain poorly understood. In this study, using the F2 population crossed from the subgynoecious line 2013-12 and the monoecious line 9-6, we initially identified a recessive locus to control the subgynoecious trait and named it sg1. After bulked segregant analysis with whole-genome resequencing and molecular marker linkage analysis, the sg1 locus was mapped to pumpkin Chromosome 2. Genetic sequence analysis found a pumpkin calcium-dependent protein kinase (CPK) gene, CmaCPK4, in the mapping interval as the candidate gene. A retrotransposon insertion identified within the promoter elevated CmaCPK4 expression in 2013-12. Morphological characterization of near-isogenic lines containing the sg1 allele showed increases in the ratio of female flowers and high ethylene contents in terminal buds compared with the receptor parent. Heterologous overexpression of CmaCPK4 significantly increased the ratio of female flowers in cucumber (Cucumis sativus). Furthermore, CmaCPK4 directly interacts with and phosphorylates 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase 5 (CmaACS5) and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase 7 (CmaACS7), resulting in increased ethylene content in 2013-12, which affected pumpkin sex determination. These findings provide insights into the role of the CmaCPK4-CmaACS5/CmaACS7 module in ethylene-induced sex determination in pumpkin.

Revisit and explore the ethylene-independent mechanism of sex expression in cucumber (Cucumis sativus)

KEY MESSAGE

This review provides a thorough and comprehensive perspective on the topic of cucumber sexual expression. Specifically, insights into sex expression mediated by pathways other than ethylene are highlighted. Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is a common and important commercial crop that is cultivated and consumed worldwide. Additionally, this species is commonly used as a model for investigating plant sex expression. Cucumbers exhibit a variety of floral arrangements, comprising male, female, and hermaphroditic (bisexual) flowers. Generally, cucumber plants that produce female flowers are typically preferred due to their significant impact on the overall output. Various environmental conditions, such as temperature, light quality, and photoperiod, have been also shown to influence the sex expression in this species. Multiple lines of evidence indicate that ethylene and its biosynthesis genes are crucial in regulating cucumber sex expression. Gibberellins, another well-known phytohormone, can similarly influence cucumber sex expression via an ethylene-independent route. Further studies employing the next-generation sequencing technology also visualized a deeper slice of the molecular mechanism such as the role of the cell cycle program in the cucumber sex expression. This review aims to provide an overview of the sex expression of cucumber including its underlying molecular mechanism and regulatory aspects based on recent investigations.

Diverse functional interactions between ABA and ethylene in plant development and responses to stress

Abscisic acid (ABA) and ethylene are two essential hormones that play crucial roles throughout the entire plant life cycle and in their tolerance to abiotic or biotic stress. In recent decades, increasing research has revealed that, in addition to their individual roles, these two hormones are more likely to function through their interactions, forming a complex regulatory network. More importantly, their functions change and their interactions vary from synergistic to antagonistic depending on the specific plant organ and development stage, which is less focused, compared and systematically summarized. In this review, we first introduce the general synthesis and action signaling pathways of these two plant hormones individually and their interactions in relation to seed dormancy and germination, primary root growth, shoot development, fruit ripening, leaf senescence and abscission, and stomatal movement regulation under both normal and stress conditions. A better understanding of the complex interactions between ABA and ethylene will enhance our knowledge of how plant hormones regulate development and respond to stress and may facilitate the development of crops with higher yields and greater tolerance to stressful environments through tissue-specific genetic modifications in the future.

Characterization and functions of Myeloblastosis (MYB) transcription factors in cucurbit crops

Myeloblastosis (MYB) is one of the largest family of transcription factors (TFs) in plants. It plays a key role in plant life activities, such as metabolic regulation, stress resistant, as well as helpful for plant growth and development. In China, cucurbit is an important and nutrients rich vegetable crop, which have high medicinal and socio-economic values. In this review, we discussed the structure and characterization of MYB TFs and how do regulate flower development, fruit maturity, fruit quality, and flavonoid biosynthesis. Furthermore, we highlight the effect and contribution of MYB TFs in the regulation of biotic and abiotic stress resistance. This comprehensive review will provide a new reference for the more effective application of MYB TF in quality control, stress resistance research and molecular breeding of cucurbit crops.

Ethylene in fruits: beyond ripening control

Fruits are a rich source of nutrients, minerals, and dietary fibers for both humans and animals. While the gaseous phytohormone ethylene is well-known for its role in controlling fruit ripening, there is growing evidence that ethylene also plays crucial roles in regulating other developmental processes of fruits, such as sex determination, fruit set, and fruit growth. In this review, we aim to revisit these findings from various species like cucumber, melon, tomato, rice, maize, and more. These studies not only enhance our understanding of ethylene's function in fruits but also highlight the potential for manipulating ethylene to improve crops. Furthermore, we discuss recent studies that show the ethylene precursor ACC (1-AMINOCYCLOPROPANE-1-CARBOXYLATE), and the ethylene signaling components EIN2 (ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE2) and EIN3 (ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE3) have ethylene-independent function in specific conditions. This phenomenon, combined with findings of dosage-dependent ethylene functions in certain conditions, highlights the importance of analyzing mutants with completely blocked ethylene pathways in different species at specific developmental stages and tissue types. Overall, this review offers a timely and essential summary of ethylene's role in sex determination, fruit formation, and fruit growth, which could be beneficial for horticulture crop breeding.

A multispecies study reveals the diversity and potential regulatory role of long noncoding RNAs in cucurbits

Plant long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) exhibit features such as tissue-specific expression, spatiotemporal regulation, and stress responsiveness. Although diverse studies support the regulatory role of lncRNAs in model plants, our knowledge about lncRNAs in crops is limited. We employ a custom pipeline on a dataset of over 1000 RNA-seq samples across nine representative species of the family Cucurbitaceae to predict 91 209 nonredundant lncRNAs. The lncRNAs were characterized according to three confidence levels and classified by their genomic context into intergenic, natural antisense, intronic, and sense-overlapping. Compared with protein-coding genes, lncRNAs were, on average, expressed at low levels and displayed significantly higher specificity when considering tissue, developmental stages, and stress responsiveness. The evolutionary analysis indicates higher positional conservation than sequence conservation, probably linked to the conserved modular motifs within syntenic lncRNAs. Moreover, a positive correlation between the expression of intergenic/natural antisense lncRNAs and their closest/parental gene was observed. For those intergenic, the correlation decreases with the distance to the neighboring gene, supporting that their potential cis-regulatory effect is within a short-range. Furthermore, the analysis of developmental studies showed that a conserved NAT-lncRNA family is differentially expressed in a coordinated way with their cognate sense protein-coding genes. These genes code for proteins associated with phloem development, thus providing insights about the potential involvement of some of the identified lncRNAs in a developmental process. We expect that this extensive inventory will constitute a valuable resource for further research lines focused on elucidating the regulatory mechanisms mediated by lncRNAs in cucurbits.

Jasmonate-insensitive mutant jar1b prevents petal elongation and flower opening coupling with parthenocarpic fruit development in Cucurbita pepo

Jasmonates are growth regulators that play a key role in flower development, fruit ripening, root growth, and plant defence. The study explores the coordination of floral organ maturation to ensure proper flower opening for pollination and fertilization. A new mutant (jar1b) was discovered, lacking petal elongation and flower opening but showing normal pistil and stamen development, leading to parthenocarpic fruit development. The mutation also enhanced the elongation of roots while reducing the formation of root hairs. BSA sequencing showed that jar1b is a missense mutation in the gene CpJAR1B, which encodes the enzyme that catalyzes the conjugation between JA and the amino acid isoleucine. The loss of function mutation in CpJAR1B produced a deficiency in biologically active (+) -7-iso-jasmonoyl-L-isoleucine (JA-Ile), which was not complemented by the paralogous gene CpJAR1A or any other redundant gene. Exogenous application of methyl jasmonate (MeJA) demonstrated that jar1b is partially insensitive to JA in both flowers and roots. Further experimentation involving the combination of JA-Ile deficient and ethylene-deficient, and ET insensitive mutations in double mutants revealed that CpJAR1B mediated ET action in female petal maturation and flower opening, but JA and ET have independent additive effects as negative regulators of the set and development of squash fruits. CpJAR1B also regulated the aperture of male flowers in an ethylene-independent manner. The root phenotype of jar1b and effects of external MeJA treatments indicated that CpJAR1B has a dual role in root development, inhibiting the elongation of primary and secondary roots, but promoting the formation of root hairs.

Harbinger transposon insertion in ethylene signaling gene leads to emergence of new sexual forms in cucurbits

In flowering plants, the predominant sexual morph is hermaphroditism, and the emergence of unisexuality is poorly understood. Using Cucumis melo (melon) as a model system, we explore the mechanisms driving sexual forms. We identify a spontaneous mutant exhibiting a transition from bisexual to unisexual male flower, and identify the causal mutation as a Harbinger transposon impairing the expression of Ethylene Insensitive 2 (CmEIN2) gene. Genetics and transcriptomic analysis reveal a dual role of CmEIN2 in both sex determination and fruit shape formation. Upon expression of CmACS11, EIN2 is recruited to repress the expression of the carpel inhibitor, CmWIP1. Subsequently, EIN2 is recruited to mediate stamina inhibition. Following the sex determination phase, EIN2 promotes fruit shape elongation. Genome-wide analysis reveals that Harbinger transposon mobilization is triggered by environmental cues, and integrates preferentially in active chromatin, particularly within promoter regions. Characterization of a large collection of melon germplasm points to active transpositions in the wild, compared to cultivated accessions. Our study underscores the association between chromatin dynamics and the temporal aspects of mobile genetic element insertions, providing valuable insights into plant adaptation and crop genome evolution.

The transcription factor CpMYB62 controls the genetic network that leads to the determination of female flowers in Cucurbita pepo

In monoecious species, female flowering constitutes the developmental process that determines the onset and production of fruit and is therefore closely related to crop yield. This article presents the identification and phenotypic and molecular characterization of myb62, an ethylmethane sulfonate loss-of-function mutation that completely blocks the female floral transition, converting all female flowers into male flowers. BSA-seq analysis coupled with WGS showed that myb62 corresponds to a C>T transition in the coding region of the gene CpMYB62, generating a premature stop codon and a truncated transcription factor without its N-terminal effector domain. The myb62 phenotype was partially rescued by exogenous ethylene application, indicating that the function of CpMYB62 is mediated by ethylene. Different evidence supports this conclusion: first, the reduced ethylene production of the mutant, and second, the male flower productive phenotype of the double mutant between myb62 and the ethylene-insensitive mutant etr2b, which demonstrated that myb62 is epistatic over etr2b. Furthermore, transcriptomic analysis of WT and myb62 apical shoots confirmed that CpMYB62 regulates master sex-determining genes, upregulating those encoding the ethylene biosynthesis enzymes CpACO2B and CpACS27A and those encoding for transcription factors that promote the development of carpels(CpCRC), but downregulating those involved in the arrest of carpels (CpWIP1), In the gene network controlling sex determination in cucurbits, CpMYB62 occupies the most upstream position, activating ethylene and other sex determining genes involved in female flower determination in Cucurbita  pepo.

An miR164-resistant mutation in the transcription factor gene CpCUC2B enhances carpel arrest and ectopic boundary specification in Cucurbita pepo flower development

The sex determination process in cucurbits involves the control of stamen or carpel development during the specification of male or female flowers from a bisexual floral meristem, a function coordinated by ethylene. A gain-of-function mutation in the miR164-binding site of CpCUC2B, ortholog of the Arabidopsis transcription factor gene CUC2, not only produced ectopic floral meristems and organs, but also suppressed the development of carpels and promoted the development of stamens. The cuc2b mutation induced the transcription of CpCUC2B in the apical shoots of plants after female flowering but repressed other CUC genes regulated by miR164, suggesting a conserved functional redundancy of these genes in the development of squash flowers. The synergistic androecious phenotype of the double mutant between cuc2b and etr2b, an ethylene-insensitive mutation that enhances the production of male flowers, demonstrated that CpCUC2B arrests the development of carpels independently of ethylene and CpWIP1B. The transcriptional regulation of CpCUC1, CpCUC2, and ethylene genes in cuc2b and ethylene mutants also confirms this conclusion. However, the epistasis of cuc2b over aco1a, a mutation that suppresses stamen arrest in female flowers, and the down-regulation of CpACS27A in cuc2b female apical shoots, indicated that CpCUC2B promotes stamen development by suppressing the late ethylene production.

Breaking boundaries: a novel role for CUC genes in sex determination in cucurbits

This article comments on:

Segura M, García A, Gamarra G, Benítez A, Iglesias-Moya J, Martínez C, Jamilena M. 2024. An miR164-resistant mutation in the transcription factor gene CpCUC2B enhances carpel arrest and ectopic boundary specification in Cucurbita pepo flower development. Journal of Experimental Botany 75, 1948–1966.

Transcriptomic analysis reveals the molecular basis of photoperiod-regulated sex differentiation in tropical pumpkins (Cucurbita moschata Duch.)

BACKGROUND

Photoperiod, or the length of the day, has a significant impact on the flowering and sex differentiation of photoperiod-sensitive crops. The "miben" pumpkin (the main type of Cucurbita moschata Duch.) is well-known for its high yield and strong disease resistance. However, its cultivation has been limited due to its sensitivity to photoperiod. This sensitivity imposes challenges on its widespread cultivation and may result in suboptimal yields in regions with specific daylength conditions. As a consequence, efforts are being made to explore potential strategies or breeding techniques to enhance its adaptability to a broader range of photoperiods, thus unlocking its full cultivation potential and further promoting its valuable traits in agriculture.

RESULTS

This study aimed to identify photoperiod-insensitive germplasm exhibiting no difference in sex differentiation under different day-length conditions. The investigation involved a phenotypic analysis of photoperiod-sensitive (PPS) and photoperiod-insensitive (PPIS) pumpkin materials exposed to different day lengths, including long days (LDs) and short days (SDs). The results revealed that female flower differentiation was significantly inhibited in PPS_LD, while no differences were observed in the other three groups (PPS_SD, PPIS_LD, and PPIS_SD). Transcriptome analysis was carried out for these four groups to explore the main-effect genes of sex differentiation responsive to photoperiod. The main-effect gene subclusters were identified based on the principal component and hierarchical cluster analyses. Further, functional annotations and enrichment analysis revealed significant upregulation of photoreceptors (CmCRY1, F-box/kelch-repeat protein), circadian rhythm-related genes (CmGI, CmPRR9, etc.), and CONSTANS (CO) in PPS_LD. Conversely, a significant downregulation was observed in most Nuclear Factor Y (NF-Y) transcription factors. Regarding the gibberellic acid (GA) signal transduction pathway, positive regulators of GA signaling (CmSCL3, CmSCL13, and so forth) displayed higher expression levels, while the negative regulators of GA signaling, CmGAI, exhibited lower expression levels in PPS_LD. Notably, this effect was not observed in the synthetic pathway genes. Furthermore, genes associated with ethylene synthesis and signal transduction (CmACO3, CmACO1, CmERF118, CmERF118-like1,2, CmWIN1-like, and CmRAP2-7-like) showed significant downregulation.

CONCLUSIONS

This study offered a crucial theoretical and genetic basis for understanding how photoperiod influences the mechanism of female flower differentiation in pumpkins.

Comparative RNA-Seq Analysis between Monoecious and Androecious Plants Reveals Regulatory Mechanisms Controlling Female Flowering in Cucurbita pepo

In the monoecious Cucurbita pepo, the transition to female flowering is the time at which the plant starts the production of female flowers after an initial male phase of development. Ethylene plays an essential role in this process since some ethylene deficient and ethylene-insensitive mutants are androecious and only produce male flowers. To gain insight into the molecular mechanisms regulating the specification and early development of female flowers, we have compared the transcriptomic changes occurring in the shoot apices of WT and androecious ethylene-insensitive etr1b mutant plants upon female flowering transition. There were 1160 female flowering-specific DEGs identified in WT plants upon female flowering, and 284 of them were found to be modulated by the ethylene-insensitive etr1b mutation. The function of these DEGs indicated that female flower specification depends on the adoption of a transcriptional program that includes previously identified sex-determining genes in the ethylene pathway, but also genes controlling the biosynthesis and signaling pathways of other phytohormones, and those encoding for many different transcription factors. The transcriptomic changes suggested that gibberellins play a negative role in female flowering, while ethylene, auxins, ABA and cytokinins are positive regulators. Transcription factors from 34 families, including NAC, ERF, bHLH, bZIP, MYB and C2H2/CH3, were found to be regulating female flowering in an ethylene-dependent or -independent manner. Our data open a new perspective of the molecular mechanisms that control the specification and development of female flowers in C. pepo.

Multi-Omics Analysis Reveals Intricate Gene Networks Involved in Female Development in Melon

Sexual differentiation is an important developmental phenomenon in cucurbits that directly affects fruit yield. The natural existence of multiple flower types in melon offers an inclusive structure for studying the molecular basis of sexual differentiation. The current study aimed to identify and characterize the molecular network involved in sex determination and female development in melon. Male and female pools separated by the F2 segregated generation were used for sequencing. The comparative multi-omics data revealed 551 DAPs and 594 DEGs involved in multiple pathways of melon growth and development, and based on functional annotation and enrichment analysis, we summarized four biological process modules, including ethylene biosynthesis, flower organ development, plant hormone signaling, and ubiquitinated protein metabolism, that are related to female development. Furthermore, the detailed analysis of the female developmental regulatory pathway model of ethylene biosynthesis, signal transduction, and target gene regulation identified some important candidates that might have a crucial role in female development. Two CMTs ((cytosine-5)-methyltransferase), one AdoHS (adenosylhomocysteinase), four ACSs (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase), three ACOs (ACC oxidase), two ARFs (auxin response factor), four ARPs (auxin-responsive protein), and six ERFs (Ethylene responsive factor) were identified based on various female developmental regulatory models. Our data offer new and valuable insights into female development and hold the potential to offer a deeper comprehension of sex differentiation mechanisms in melon.

Rare rhizo-Actinomycetes: A new source of agroactive metabolites

Numerous biotic and abiotic stress in some geographical regions predisposed their agricultural matrix to challenges threatening plant productivity, health, and quality. In curbing these threats, different customary agrarian principles have been created through research and development, ranging from chemical inputs and genetic modification of crops to the recently trending smart agricultural technology. But the peculiarities associated with these methods have made agriculturists rely on plant rhizospheric microbiome services, particularly bacteria. Several bacterial resources like Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Acidobacteria, and Actinomycetes (Streptomycetes) are prominent as bioinoculants or the application of their by-products in alleviating biotic/abiotic stress have been extensively studied, with a dearth in the application of rare Actinomycetes metabolites. Rare Actinomycetes are known for their colossal genome, containing well-preserved genes coding for prolific secondary metabolites with many agroactive functionalities that can revolutionize the agricultural industry. Therefore, the imperativeness of this review to express the occurrence and distributions of rare Actinomycetes diversity, plant and soil-associated habitats, successional track in the rhizosphere under diverse stress, and their agroactive metabolite characteristics and functionalities that can remediate the challenges associated with agricultural productivity.

Impact of Climate Change on Regulation of Genes Involved in Sex Determination and Fruit Production in Cucumber

Environmental changes, both natural and anthropogenic, mainly related to rising temperatures and water scarcity, are clearly visible around the world. Climate change is important for crop production and is a major issue for the growth and productivity of cucumbers. Processes such as sex determination, flower morphogenesis and fruit development in cucumbers are highly sensitive to various forms of stress induced by climatic changes. It is noteworthy that many factors, including genetic factors, transcription factors, phytohormones and miRNAs, are crucial in regulating these processes and are themselves affected by climate change. Changes in the expression and activity of these factors have been observed as a consequence of climatic conditions. This review focuses primarily on exploring the effects of climate change and abiotic stresses, such as increasing temperature and drought, on the processes of sex determination, reproduction, and fruit development in cucumbers at the molecular level. In addition, it highlights the existing research gaps that need to be addressed in order to improve our understanding of the complex interactions between climate change and cucumber physiology. This, in turn, may lead to strategies to mitigate the adverse effects and enhance cucumber productivity in a changing climate.

Advance in sex differentiation in cucumber

Cucumber belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae (melon genus) and is an annual herbaceous vegetable crop. Cucumber is an important cash crop that is grown all over the world. From morphology to cytology, from canonical genetics to molecular biology, researchers have performed much research on sex differentiation and its regulatory mechanism in cucumber, mainly in terms of cucumber sex determination genes, environmental conditions, and the effects of plant hormones, revealing its genetic basis to improve the number of female flowers in cucumber, thus greatly improving the yield of cucumber. This paper reviews the research progress of sex differentiation in cucumber in recent years, mainly focusing on sex-determining genes, environmental conditions, and the influence of phytohormones in cucumber, and provides a theoretical basis and technical support for the realization of high and stable yield cultivation and molecular breeding of cucumber crop traits.

Candidate gene based SSR and SNP markers for gynoecy in bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.)

BACKGROUND

Even though the bitter gourd hybrids are shown to have significant heterosis for many of the economic traits, processes such as manual bagging and hand pollination make the hybrid seed production labour-intensive. Use of gynoecious line as female parent makes hybrid seed production more economical. This work was performed with the objective to identify the candidate gene based molecular markers for gynoecy in bitter gourd.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Seven putative genes for flowering and sex expression, isolated from the monoecious (MC-136) and gynoecious (KAU-MCGy-101) bitter gourd accessions, were sequence characterized. MADS-box transcription factor genes AG6 and McAG2 had nucleotide polymorphisms at five sites each and were potential candidates for marker development. An In/Del polymorphism of 48 bp ([TC]₂₄) in AG6 gene was used to develop an SSR marker and a transition mutation of [A/G] in this gene was used to develop a set of SNP markers. These markers have developed distinct polymorphism between the monoecious and gynoecious genotypes and were found suited for the marker assisted selection.

CONCLUSIONS

MADS box transcription factor genes AG6 and McAG2 are identified as candidates for sex expression in bitter gourd. Based on the InDels and transition in the intronic region of AG6, SSR marker BGAG6 and an SNP marker set segregating with the sex forms were developed. The markers have been validated using four other monoecious lines and are routinely used in our bitter gourd hybrid seed production programmes.

Fine mapping and candidate gene analysis of gynoecy trait in chieh-qua (Benincasa hispida Cogn. var. chieh-qua How)

Gynoecy demonstrates an earlier production of hybrids and a higher yield and improves the efficiency of hybrid seed production. Therefore, the utilization of gynoecy is beneficial for the genetic breeding of chieh-qua. However, little knowledge of gynoecious-related genes in chieh-qua has been reported until now. Here, we used an F₂ population from the cross between the gynoecious line 'A36' and the monoecious line 'SX' for genetic mapping and revealed that chieh-qua gynoecy was regulated by a single recessive gene. We fine-mapped it into a 530-kb region flanked by the markers Indel-3 and KASP145 on Chr.8, which harbors eight candidate genes. One of the candidate genes, Bhi08G000345, encoding networked protein 4 (CqNET4), contained a non-synonymous SNP resulting in the amino acid substitution of isoleucine (ATA; I) to methionine (ATG; M). CqNET4 was prominently expressed in the female flower, and only three genes related to ethylene synthesis were significantly expressed between 'A36' and 'SX.' The results presented here provide support for the CqNET4 as the most likely candidate gene for chieh-qua gynoecy, which differed from the reported gynoecious genes.

The distribution of sexual function in the flowering plant: from monoecy to dioecy

In flowering plants, male and female functions are usually closely associated in the same flowers, as predicted by resource allocation theory. However, the benefits of outbreeding can lead to unisexual flowers and the physiological control of their distribution across the plant (monoecy). Monoecy is thought to be a major route to dioecy (separation of sexual function of different individuals). The developmental and functional problems associated with unisexual flowers may thus be solved at the level of the evolution of monoecy. Consequently, the evolution of dioecy from monoecy requires mutations in only a single gene. Here various scenarios (conceptual models) are presented for the evolution of monoecy and dioecy, including scenarios consistent with known cases of single-gene control of dioecy, such as in Populus, and the artificial breeding of dioecy from monoecy experimentally achieved in Zea and Cucumis. Attention is also drawn here to the phenomenon of pleogamy, the minor or occasional occurrence of additional sex morphs within a species, which may provide important information about the genetic and developmental control of various sexual systems. This article is part of the theme issue 'Sex determination and sex chromosome evolution in land plants'.

The Ethylene Biosynthesis Gene CpACO1A: A New Player in the Regulation of Sex Determination and Female Flower Development in Cucurbita pepo

A methanesulfonate-generated mutant has been identified in Cucurbita pepo that alters sex determination. The mutation converts female into hermaphrodite flowers and disrupts the growth rate and maturation of petals and carpels, delaying female flower opening, and promoting the growth rate of ovaries and the parthenocarpic development of the fruit. Whole-genome resequencing allowed identification of the causal mutation of the phenotypes as a missense mutation in the coding region of CpACO1A, which encodes for a type I ACO enzyme that shares a high identity with Cucumis sativus CsACO3 and Cucumis melo CmACO1. The so-called aco1a reduced ACO1 activity and ethylene production in the different organs where the gene is expressed, and reduced ethylene sensitivity in flowers. Other sex-determining genes, such as CpACO2B, CpACS11A, and CpACS27A, were differentially expressed in the mutant, indicating that ethylene provided by CpACO1A but also the transcriptional regulation of CpACO1A, CpACO2B, CpACS11A, and CpACS27A are responsible for determining the fate of the floral meristem toward a female flower, promoting the development of carpels and arresting the development of stamens. The positive regulation of ethylene on petal maturation and flower opening can be mediated by inducing the biosynthesis of JA, while its negative control on ovary growth and fruit set could be mediated by its repressive effect on IAA biosynthesis.

Development and Evolution of Unisexual Flowers: A Review

The development of unisexual flowers has been described in a large number of taxa, sampling the diversity of floral phenotypes and sexual systems observed in extant angiosperms, in studies focusing on floral ontogeny, on the evo-devo of unisexuality, or on the genetic and chromosomal bases of unisexuality. We review here such developmental studies, aiming at characterizing the diversity of ontogenic pathways leading to functionally unisexual flowers. In addition, we present for the first time and in a two-dimensional morphospace a quantitative description of the developmental rate of the sexual organs in functionally unisexual flowers, in a non-exhaustive sampling of angiosperms with contrasted floral morphologies. Eventually, recommendations are provided to help plant evo-devo researchers and botanists addressing macroevolutionary and ecological issues to more precisely select the taxa, the biological material, or the developmental stages to be investigated.