FMRFamide related peptide ligands activate the Caenorhabditis elegans orphan GPCR Y59H11AL.1

FMRFamide G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) in the cuttlefish Sepiella japonica: Identification, characterization and expression profile

FMRFamide is a ubiquitous neuromodulator in the animal kingdom. Once FMRFamide or similar neuropeptides bind to their G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR), a series of signal transduction events are triggered, thereby mediating various physiological effects. FMRFamide had been reported to be involved in the regulation of sexual maturation in Sepiella japonica. In this research, the full-length cDNA of FMRFamide G protein-coupled receptor of S. japonica (SjFaGPCR) was cloned. The sequence is 1396 bp long and encodes a protein consisting of 418 amino acid residues, lacking a signal peptide at the N-terminal region. The 3D structure of SjFaGPCR was predicted using Todarodes pacificus rhodopsin as a template, and the result indicated the presence of seven transmembrane regions. Multiple sequence alignments and phylogenetic trees indicated that SjFaGPCR is conserved among invertebrates, and shares highly similar sequence characteristics with other cephalopods. In situ hybridization (ISH) results revealed that significant signals of SjFaGPCR were detected in the central medulla and the granular layer cells of the optic lobe, and were also observed in the supraesophageal and subesophageal masses of the brain. Meanwhile, quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) results showed that a higher expression level of SjFaGPCR mRNA was detected in the brain and optic lobe of female cuttlefish at stage III and stage VI, and also in the brain (stage V) and optic lobe (stages IV and V) of male cuttlefish than that in other tissues. The co-localization results demonstrated that fluorescence signals of SjFMRFamide and SjFaGPCR were overlapped in HEK293 cells, suggesting a possible interaction between the SjFMRFamide and SjFaGPCR. These findings provide molecular support for further exploring the roles of FMRFamide and FaGPCR in the reproductive regulation of S. japonica.

Hierarchical regulation of functionally antagonistic neuropeptides expressed in a single neuron pair

Neuronal communication involves small-molecule transmitters, gap junctions, and neuropeptides. While neurons often express multiple neuropeptides, our understanding of the coordination of their actions and their mutual interactions remains limited. Here, we demonstrate that two neuropeptides, NLP-10 and FLP-1, released from the same interneuron pair, AVKL/R, exert antagonistic effects on locomotion speed in Caenorhabditis elegans. NLP-10 accelerates locomotion by activating the G protein-coupled receptor NPR-35 on premotor interneurons that promote forward movement. Notably, we establish that NLP-10 is crucial for the aversive response to mechanical and noxious light stimuli. Conversely, AVK-derived FLP-1 slows down locomotion by suppressing the secretion of NLP-10 from AVK, through autocrine feedback via activation of its receptor DMSR-7 in AVK neurons. Our findings suggest that peptidergic autocrine motifs, exemplified by the interaction between NLP-10 and FLP-1, might represent a widespread mechanism in nervous systems across species. These mutual functional interactions among peptidergic co-transmitters could fine-tune brain activity.

Evolutionary conserved peptide and glycoprotein hormone-like neuroendocrine systems in C. elegans

Peptides and protein hormones form the largest group of secreted signals that mediate intercellular communication and are central regulators of physiology and behavior in all animals. Phylogenetic analyses and biochemical identifications of peptide-receptor systems reveal a broad evolutionary conservation of these signaling systems at the molecular level. Substantial progress has been made in recent years on characterizing the physiological and putative ancestral roles of many peptide systems through comparative studies in invertebrate models. Several peptides and protein hormones are not only molecularly conserved but also have conserved roles across animal phyla. Here, we focus on functional insights gained in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans that, with its compact and well-described nervous system, provides a powerful model to dissect neuroendocrine signaling networks involved in the control of physiology and behavior. We summarize recent discoveries on the evolutionary conservation and knowledge on the functions of peptide and protein hormone systems in C. elegans.

Mass Spectrometry-Driven Discovery of Neuropeptides Mediating Nictation Behavior of Nematodes

Neuropeptides regulate animal physiology and behavior, making them widely studied targets of functional genetics research. While the field often relies on differential -omics approaches to build hypotheses, no such method exists for neuropeptidomics. It would nonetheless be valuable for studying behaviors suspected to be regulated by neuropeptides, especially when little information is otherwise available. This includes nictation, a phoretic strategy of Caenorhabditis elegans dauers that parallels host-finding strategies of infective juveniles of many pathogenic nematodes. We here developed a targeted peptidomics method for the model organism C. elegans and show that 161 quantified neuropeptides are more abundant in its dauer stage compared with L3 juveniles. Many of these have orthologs in the commercially relevant pathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae, in whose infective juveniles, we identified 126 neuropeptides in total. Through further behavioral genetics experiments, we identify flp-7 and flp-11 as novel regulators of nictation. Our work advances knowledge on the genetics of nictation behavior and adds comparative neuropeptidomics as a tool to functional genetics workflows.

Eleutheroside E reduces intestinal fat accumulation in Caenorhabditis elegans through neuroendocrine signals

BACKGROUND

Acanthopanax senticosus, a small woody shrub of the family Araliaceae, can be used as a functional food with multiple biological activities. Eleutheroside E (EE), an important active component of A. senticosus, has significant effects on neurological diseases. However, whether EE can regulate lipid metabolism has not been reported. The brain can mediate communication between neurons and intestinal cells through long-distance neuroendocrine signals. We speculated that EE might regulate the intestinal lipid metabolism of Caenorhabditis elegans through neuroendocrine signals.

RESULTS

First, we found that EE reduced the intestinal fat content of C. elegans, without affecting development, reproduction, food intake or movement. In addition, EE significantly regulated genes and metabolites related to lipid metabolism. EE extensively affected fatty acid synthesis, β-oxidation and lipolysis processes, and regulated the content of various fatty acid and lipid metabolism intermediates. We finally proved that EE reduced intestinal fat storage through serotonin and neuropeptide flp-7-npr-22 pathways in the nervous system.

CONCLUSION

EE is expected to be a functional food that regulates lipid metabolism. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Dopamine receptor DOP-1 engages a sleep pathway to modulate swimming in C. elegans

Animals require robust yet flexible programs to support locomotion. Here we report a pathway that connects the D1-like dopamine receptor DOP-1 with a sleep mechanism to modulate swimming in C. elegans. We show that DOP-1 plays a negative role in sustaining swimming behavior. By contrast, a pathway through the D2-like dopamine receptor DOP-3 negatively regulates the initiation of swimming, but its impact fades quickly over a few minutes. We find that DOP-1 and the GPCR kinase (G-protein-coupled receptor kinase-2) function in the sleep interneuron RIS, where DOP-1 modulates the secretion of a sleep neuropeptide FLP-11. We further show that DOP-1 and FLP-11 act in the same pathway to modulate swimming. Together, these results delineate a functional connection between a dopamine receptor and a sleep program to regulate swimming in C. elegans. The temporal transition between DOP-3 and DOP-1 pathways highlights the dynamic nature of neuromodulation for rhythmic movements that persist over time.

Neuroendocrine control of lipid metabolism: lessons from C. elegans

This review article highlights our efforts to decode the role of the nervous system in regulating intestinal lipid metabolism in Caenorhabditis elegans. Capitalizing on the prescient and pioneering work of Sydney Brenner and John Sulston in establishing C. elegans as an immensely valuable model system, we have uncovered critical roles for oxygen sensing, population density sensing and food sensing in orchestrating the balance between storing lipids and utilizing them for energy in the intestine, the major organ for lipid metabolism in this model system. Our long-term goal is to reveal the integrative mechanisms and regulatory logic that underlies the complex relationship between genes, environment and internal state in the regulation of energy and whole-body physiology.

Evolution and Comparative Physiology of Luqin-Type Neuropeptide Signaling

Luqin is a neuropeptide that was discovered and named on account of its expression in left upper quadrant cells of the abdominal ganglion in the mollusc Aplysia californica. Subsequently, luqin-type peptides were identified as cardio-excitatory neuropeptides in other molluscs and a cognate receptor was discovered in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis. Phylogenetic analyses have revealed that orthologs of molluscan luqin-type neuropeptides occur in other phyla; these include neuropeptides in ecdysozoans (arthropods, nematodes) that have a C-terminal RYamide motif (RYamides) and neuropeptides in ambulacrarians (echinoderms, hemichordates) that have a C-terminal RWamide motif (RWamides). Furthermore, precursors of luqin-type neuropeptides typically have a conserved C-terminal motif containing two cysteine residues, although the functional significance of this is unknown. Consistent with the orthology of the neuropeptides and their precursors, phylogenetic and pharmacological studies have revealed that orthologous G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) mediate effects of luqin-type neuropeptides in spiralians, ecdysozoans, and ambulacrarians. Luqin-type signaling originated in a common ancestor of the Bilateria as a paralog of tachykinin-type signaling but, unlike tachykinin-type signaling, luqin-type signaling was lost in chordates. This may largely explain why luqin-type signaling has received less attention than many other neuropeptide signaling systems. However, insights into the physiological actions of luqin-type neuropeptides (RYamides) in ecdysozoans have been reported recently, with roles in regulation of feeding and diuresis revealed in insects and roles in regulation of feeding, egg laying, locomotion, and lifespan revealed in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Furthermore, characterization of a luqin-type neuropeptide in the starfish Asterias rubens (phylum Echinodermata) has provided the first insights into the physiological roles of luqin-type signaling in a deuterostome. In conclusion, although luqin was discovered in Aplysia over 30 years ago, there is still much to be learnt about luqin-type neuropeptide signaling. This will be facilitated in the post-genomic era by the emerging opportunities for experimental studies on a variety of invertebrate taxa.

Tachykinins: Neuropeptides That Are Ancient, Diverse, Widespread and Functionally Pleiotropic

Tachykinins (TKs) are ancient neuropeptides present throughout the bilaterians and are, with some exceptions, characterized by a conserved FX1GX2Ramide carboxy terminus among protostomes and FXGLMamide in deuterostomes. The best-known TK is the vertebrate substance P, which in mammals, together with other TKs, has been implicated in health and disease with important roles in pain, inflammation, cancer, depressive disorder, immune system, gut function, hematopoiesis, sensory processing, and hormone regulation. The invertebrate TKs are also known to have multiple functions in the central nervous system and intestine and these have been investigated in more detail in the fly Drosophila and some other arthropods. Here, we review the protostome and deuterostome organization and evolution of TK precursors, peptides and their receptors, as well as their functions, which appear to be partly conserved across Bilateria. We also outline the distribution of TKs in the brains of representative organisms. In Drosophila, recent studies have revealed roles of TKs in early olfactory processing, neuromodulation in circuits controlling locomotion and food search, nociception, aggression, metabolic stress, and hormone release. TK signaling also regulates lipid metabolism in the Drosophila intestine. In crustaceans, TK is an important neuromodulator in rhythm-generating motor circuits in the stomatogastric nervous system and a presynaptic modulator of photoreceptor cells. Several additional functional roles of invertebrate TKs can be inferred from their distribution in various brain circuits. In addition, there are a few interesting cases where invertebrate TKs are injected into prey animals as vasodilators from salivary glands or paralyzing agents from venom glands. In these cases, the peptides are produced in the glands of the predator with sequences mimicking the prey TKs. Lastly, the TK-signaling system appears to have duplicated in Panarthropoda (comprising arthropods, onychophores, and tardigrades) to give rise to a novel type of peptides, natalisins, with a distinct receptor. The distribution and functions of natalisins are distinct from the TKs. In general, it appears that TKs are widely distributed and act in circuits at short range as neuromodulators or cotransmitters.

A Chemosensory GPCR as a Potential Target to Control the Root-Knot Nematode Meloidogyne incognita Parasitism in Plants

Root-knot nematodes (RKN), from the Meloidogyne genus, have a worldwide distribution and cause severe economic damage to many life-sustaining crops. Because of their lack of specificity and danger to the environment, most chemical nematicides have been banned from use. Thus, there is a great need for new and safe compounds to control RKN. Such research involves identifying beforehand the nematode proteins essential to the invasion. Since G protein-coupled receptors GPCRs are the target of a large number of drugs, we have focused our research on the identification of putative nematode GPCRs such as those capable of controlling the movement of the parasite towards (or within) its host. A datamining procedure applied to the genome of Meloidogyne incognita allowed us to identify a GPCR, belonging to the neuropeptide GPCR family that can serve as a target to carry out a virtual screening campaign. We reconstructed a 3D model of this receptor by homology modeling and validated it through extensive molecular dynamics simulations. This model was used for large scale molecular dockings which produced a filtered limited set of putative antagonists for this GPCR. Preliminary experiments using these selected molecules allowed the identification of an active compound, namely C260-2124, from the ChemDiv provider, which can serve as a starting point for further investigations.

Transcriptome-Based Analysis Reveals a Crucial Role of BxGPCR17454 in Low Temperature Response of Pine Wood Nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus)

Background: The causal agent of pine wilt disease is the pine wood nematode (PWN) (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus), whose ability to adapt different ecological niches is a crucial determinant of their invasion to colder regions. To discover the molecular mechanism of low temperature response mechanism, we attempted to study the molecular response patterns under low temperature from B. xylophilus with a comprehensive RNA sequencing analysis and validated the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Bioinformatic software was utilized to isolate and identify the low-temperature-related BxGPCR genes. Transcript abundance of six low-temperature-related BxGPCR genes and function of one of the BxGPCR genes are studied by qRT-PCR and RNA interference. Results: The results showed that we detected 432 DEGs through RNA sequencing between low-temperature-treated and ambient-temperature-treated groups nematodes. The transcript level of 6 low-temperature-related BxGPCR genes increased at low temperature. And, the survival rates of BxGPCR17454 silenced B. xylophilus revealed a significant decrease at low temperature. Conclusion: in conclusion, this transcriptome-based study revealed a crucial role of BxGPCR17454 in low temperature response process of pine wood nematode. These discoveries would assist the development of management and methods for efficient control of this devastating pine tree pest.

Luqin-like RYamide peptides regulate food-evoked responses in C. elegans

Peptide signaling controls many processes involving coordinated actions of multiple organs, such as hormone-mediated appetite regulation. However, the extent to which the mode of action of peptide signaling is conserved in different animals is largely unknown, because many peptides and receptors remain orphan and many undiscovered peptides still exist. Here, we identify two novel Caenorhabditis elegans neuropeptides, LURY-1-1 and LURY-1-2, as endogenous ligands for the neuropeptide receptor-22 (NPR-22). Both peptides derive from the same precursor that is orthologous to invertebrate luqin/arginine-tyrosine-NH2 (RYamide) proneuropeptides. LURY-1 peptides are secreted from two classes of pharyngeal neurons and control food-related processes: feeding, lifespan, egg-laying, and locomotory behavior. We propose that LURY-1 peptides transmit food signals to NPR-22 expressed in feeding pacemaker neurons and a serotonergic neuron. Our results identified a critical role for luqin-like RYamides in feeding-related processes and suggested that peptide-mediated negative feedback is important for satiety regulation in C. elegans.

Local neuropeptide signaling modulates serotonergic transmission to shape the temporal organization of C. elegans egg-laying behavior

Animal behaviors are often composed of distinct alternating behavioral states. Neuromodulatory signals are thought to be critical for establishing stable behavioral states and for orchestrating transitions between them. However, we have only a limited understanding of how neuromodulatory systems act in vivo to alter circuit performance and shape behavior. To address these questions, we have investigated neuromodulatory signaling in the context of Caenorhabditis elegans egg-laying. Egg-laying activity cycles between discrete states-short bursts of egg deposition (active phases) that alternate with prolonged quiescent periods (inactive phases). Here using genetic, pharmacological and optogenetic approaches for cell-specific activation and inhibition, we show that a group of neurosecretory cells (uv1) located in close spatial proximity to the egg-laying neuromusculature direct the temporal organization of egg-laying by prolonging the duration of inactive phases. We demonstrate that the modulatory effects of the uv1 cells are mediated by peptides encoded by the nlp-7 and flp-11 genes that act locally to inhibit circuit activity, primarily by inhibiting vesicular release of serotonin from HSN motor neurons. This peptidergic inhibition is achieved, at least in part, by reducing synaptic vesicle abundance in the HSN motor neurons. By linking the in vivo actions of specific neuropeptide signaling systems with the generation of stable behavioral outcomes, our study reveals how cycles of neuromodulation emanating from non-neuronal cells can fundamentally shape the organization of a behavioral program.

Nematode neuropeptides as transgenic nematicides

Plant parasitic nematodes (PPNs) seriously threaten global food security. Conventionally an integrated approach to PPN management has relied heavily on carbamate, organophosphate and fumigant nematicides which are now being withdrawn over environmental health and safety concerns. This progressive withdrawal has left a significant shortcoming in our ability to manage these economically important parasites, and highlights the need for novel and robust control methods. Nematodes can assimilate exogenous peptides through retrograde transport along the chemosensory amphid neurons. Peptides can accumulate within cells of the central nerve ring and can elicit physiological effects when released to interact with receptors on adjoining cells. We have profiled bioactive neuropeptides from the neuropeptide-like protein (NLP) family of PPNs as novel nematicides, and have identified numerous discrete NLPs that negatively impact chemosensation, host invasion and stylet thrusting of the root knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita and the potato cyst nematode Globodera pallida. Transgenic secretion of these peptides from the rhizobacterium, Bacillus subtilis, and the terrestrial microalgae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii reduce tomato infection levels by up to 90% when compared with controls. These data pave the way for the exploitation of nematode neuropeptides as a novel class of plant protective nematicide, using novel non-food transgenic delivery systems which could be deployed on farmer-preferred cultivars.

A tachykinin-like neuroendocrine signalling axis couples central serotonin action and nutrient sensing with peripheral lipid metabolism

Serotonin, a central neuromodulator with ancient ties to feeding and metabolism, is a major driver of body fat loss. However, mechanisms by which central serotonin action leads to fat loss remain unknown. Here, we report that the FLP-7 neuropeptide and its cognate receptor, NPR-22, function as the ligand-receptor pair that defines the neuroendocrine axis of serotonergic body fat loss in Caenorhabditis elegans. FLP-7 is secreted as a neuroendocrine peptide in proportion to fluctuations in neural serotonin circuit functions, and its release is regulated from secretory neurons via the nutrient sensor AMPK. FLP-7 acts via the NPR-22/Tachykinin2 receptor in the intestine and drives fat loss via the adipocyte triglyceride lipase ATGL-1. Importantly, this ligand-receptor pair does not alter other serotonin-dependent behaviours including food intake. For global modulators such as serotonin, the use of distinct neuroendocrine peptides for each output may be one means to achieve phenotypic selectivity.

Sleep-active neuron specification and sleep induction require FLP-11 neuropeptides to systemically induce sleep

Sleep is an essential behavioral state. It is induced by conserved sleep-active neurons that express GABA. However, little is known about how sleep neuron function is determined and how sleep neurons change physiology and behavior systemically. Here, we investigated sleep in Caenorhabditis elegans, which is induced by the single sleep-active neuron RIS. We found that the transcription factor LIM-6, which specifies GABAergic function, in parallel determines sleep neuron function through the expression of APTF-1, which specifies the expression of FLP-11 neuropeptides. Surprisingly FLP-11, and not GABA, is the major component that determines the sleep-promoting function of RIS. FLP-11 is constantly expressed in RIS. At sleep onset RIS depolarizes and releases FLP-11 to induce a systemic sleep state.

Functional neuropeptidomics in invertebrates

Neuropeptides are key messengers in almost all physiological processes. They originate from larger precursors and are extensively processed to become bioactive. Neuropeptidomics aims to comprehensively identify the collection of neuropeptides in an organism, organ, tissue or cell. The neuropeptidome of several invertebrates is thoroughly explored since they are important model organisms (and models for human diseases), disease vectors and pest species. The charting of the neuropeptidome is the first step towards understanding peptidergic signaling. This review will first discuss the latest developments in exploring the neuropeptidome. The physiological roles and modes of action of neuropeptides can be explored in two ways, which are largely orthogonal and therefore complementary. The first way consists of inferring the functions of neuropeptides by a forward approach where neuropeptide profiles are compared under different physiological conditions. Second is the reverse approach were neuropeptide collections are used to screen for receptor-binding. This is followed by localization studies and functional tests. This review will focus on how these different functional screening methods contributed to the field of invertebrate neuropeptidomics and expanded our knowledge of peptidergic signaling. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Neuroproteomics: Applications in Neuroscience and Neurology.

Related neuropeptides use different balances of unitary mechanisms to modulate the cardiac neuromuscular system in the American lobster, Homarus americanus

To produce flexible outputs, neural networks controlling rhythmic motor behaviors can be modulated at multiple levels, including the pattern generator itself, sensory feedback, and the response of the muscle to a given pattern of motor output. We examined the role of two related neuropeptides, GYSDRNYLRFamide (GYS) and SGRNFLRFamide (SGRN), in modulating the neurogenic lobster heartbeat, which is controlled by the cardiac ganglion (CG). When perfused though an isolated whole heart at low concentrations, both peptides elicited increases in contraction amplitude and frequency. At higher concentrations, both peptides continued to elicit increases in contraction amplitude, but GYS caused a decrease in contraction frequency, while SGRN did not alter frequency. To determine the sites at which these peptides induce their effects, we examined the effects of the peptides on the periphery and on the isolated CG. When we removed the CG and stimulated the motor nerve with constant bursts of stimuli, both GYS and SGRN increased contraction amplitude, indicating that each peptide modulates the muscle or the neuromuscular junction. When applied to the isolated CG, neither peptide altered burst frequency at low peptide concentrations; at higher concentrations, SGRN decreased burst frequency, whereas GYS continued to have no effect on frequency. Together, these data suggest that the two peptides elicit some of their effects using different mechanisms; in particular, given the known feedback pathways within this system, the importance of the negative (nitric oxide) relative to the positive (stretch) feedback pathways may differ in the presence of the two peptides.

New insights into the FLPergic complements of parasitic nematodes: Informing deorphanisation approaches

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We report the identification of flp and flp-GPCR gene homologues in parasitic nematodes.

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We provide data to support re-evaluation of the number of flp-genes in nematodes.

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Post BLAST phylogenetic analysis facilitates identification of putative flp-GPCRs in nematode parasites.

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We expose the most highly conserved flp and flp-GPCR genes in key pathogens within phylum Nematoda.

FMRFamide-like peptide (FLP) receptors are appealing as putative anthelmintic targets. To date, 31 flp-encoding genes have been identified in Caenorhabditis elegans and thirteen FLP-activated G-protein coupled receptors (FLP-GPCRs) have been reported. The lack of knowledge on FLPs and FLP-GPCRs in parasites impedes their functional characterisation and chemotherapeutic exploitation. Using homology-based BLAST searches and phylogenetic analyses this study describes the identification of putative flp and flp-GPCR gene homologues in 17 nematode parasites providing the first pan-phylum genome-based overview of the FLPergic complement. These data will facilitate FLP-receptor deorphanisation efforts in the quest for novel control targets for nematode parasites.

The FMRFamide-Like Peptide Family in Nematodes

In the three decades since the FMRFamide peptide was isolated from the mollusk Macrocallista nimbosa, structurally similar peptides sharing a C-terminal RFamide motif have been identified across the animal kingdom. FMRFamide-like peptides (FLPs) represent the largest known family of neuropeptides in invertebrates. In the phylum Nematoda, at least 32 flp-genes are classified, making the FLP system of nematodes unusually complex. The diversity of the nematode FLP complement is most extensively mapped in Caenorhabditis elegans, where over 70 FLPs have been predicted. FLPs have shown to be expressed in the majority of the 302 C. elegans neurons including interneurons, sensory neurons, and motor neurons. The vast expression of FLPs is reflected in the broad functional repertoire of nematode FLP signaling, including neuroendocrine and neuromodulatory effects on locomotory activity, reproduction, feeding, and behavior. In contrast to the many identified nematode FLPs, only few peptides have been assigned a receptor and there is the need to clarify the pathway components and working mechanisms of the FLP signaling network. Here, we review the diversity, distribution, and functions of FLPs in nematodes.

Family of FLP Peptides in Caenorhabditis elegans and Related Nematodes

Neuropeptides regulate all aspects of behavior in multicellular organisms. Because of their ability to act at long distances, neuropeptides can exert their effects beyond the conventional synaptic connections, thereby adding an intricate layer of complexity to the activity of neural networks. In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, a large number of neuropeptide genes that are expressed throughout the nervous system have been identified. The actions of these peptides supplement the synaptic connections of the 302 neurons, allowing for fine tuning of neural networks and increasing the ways in which behaviors can be regulated. In this review, we focus on a large family of genes encoding FMRFamide-related peptides (FaRPs). These genes, the flp genes, have been used as a starting point to identifying flp genes throughout Nematoda. Nematodes have the largest family of FaRPs described thus far. The challenges in the future are the elucidation of their functions and the identification of the receptors and signaling pathways through which they function.

Genome-wide screening identifies Plasmodium chabaudi-induced modifications of DNA methylation status of Tlr1 and Tlr6 gene promoters in liver, but not spleen, of female C57BL/6 mice

Epigenetic reprogramming of host genes via DNA methylation is increasingly recognized as critical for the outcome of diverse infectious diseases, but information for malaria is not yet available. Here, we investigate the effect of blood-stage malaria of Plasmodium chabaudi on the DNA methylation status of host gene promoters on a genome-wide scale using methylated DNA immunoprecipitation and Nimblegen microarrays containing 2,000 bp oligonucleotide features that were split into -1,500 to -500 bp Ups promoters and -500 to +500 bp Cor promoters, relative to the transcription site, for evaluation of differential DNA methylation. Gene expression was analyzed by Agilent and Affymetrix microarray technology. Challenging of female C57BL/6 mice with 10(6) P. chabaudi-infected erythrocytes resulted in a self-healing outcome of infections with peak parasitemia on day 8 p.i. These infections induced organ-specific modifications of DNA methylation of gene promoters. Among the 17,354 features on Nimblegen arrays, only seven gene promoters were identified to be hypermethylated in the spleen, whereas the liver exhibited 109 hyper- and 67 hypomethylated promoters at peak parasitemia in comparison with non-infected mice. Among the identified genes with differentially methylated Cor-promoters, only the 7 genes Pigr, Ncf1, Klkb1, Emr1, Ndufb11, and Tlr6 in the liver and Apol6 in the spleen were detected to have significantly changed their expression. Remarkably, the Cor promoter of the toll-like receptor Tlr6 became hypomethylated and Tlr6 expression increased by 3.4-fold during infection. Concomitantly, the Ups promoter of the Tlr1 was hypermethylated, but Tlr1 expression also increased by 11.3-fold. TLR6 and TLR1 are known as auxillary receptors to form heterodimers with TLR2 in plasma membranes of macrophages, which recognize different pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), as, e.g., intact 3-acyl and sn-2-lyso-acyl glycosylphosphatidylinositols of P. falciparum, respectively. Our data suggest therefore that malaria-induced epigenetic fine-tuning of Tlr6 and Tlr1 through DNA methylation of their gene promoters in the liver is critically important for initial recognition of PAMPs and, thus, for the final self-healing outcome of blood-stage infections with P. chabaudi malaria.

Parasite neuropeptide biology: Seeding rational drug target selection?

The rationale for identifying drug targets within helminth neuromuscular signalling systems is based on the premise that adequate nerve and muscle function is essential for many of the key behavioural determinants of helminth parasitism, including sensory perception/host location, invasion, locomotion/orientation, attachment, feeding and reproduction. This premise is validated by the tendency of current anthelmintics to act on classical neurotransmitter-gated ion channels present on helminth nerve and/or muscle, yielding therapeutic endpoints associated with paralysis and/or death. Supplementary to classical neurotransmitters, helminth nervous systems are peptide-rich and encompass associated biosynthetic and signal transduction components - putative drug targets that remain to be exploited by anthelmintic chemotherapy. At this time, no neuropeptide system-targeting lead compounds have been reported, and given that our basic knowledge of neuropeptide biology in parasitic helminths remains inadequate, the short-term prospects for such drugs remain poor. Here, we review current knowledge of neuropeptide signalling in Nematoda and Platyhelminthes, and highlight a suite of 19 protein families that yield deleterious phenotypes in helminth reverse genetics screens. We suggest that orthologues of some of these peptidergic signalling components represent appealing therapeutic targets in parasitic helminths.

Neuropeptide GPCRs in C. elegans

Like most organisms, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans relies heavily on neuropeptidergic signaling. This tiny animal represents a suitable model system to study neuropeptidergic signaling networks with single cell resolution due to the availability of powerful molecular and genetic tools. The availability of the worm's complete genome sequence allows researchers to browse through it, uncovering putative neuropeptides and their cognate G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Many predictions have been made about the number of C. elegans neuropeptide GPCRs. In this review, we report the state of the art of both verified as well as predicted C. elegans neuropeptide GPCRs. The predicted neuropeptide GPCRs are incorporated into the receptor classification system based on their resemblance to orthologous GPCRs in insects and vertebrates. Appointing the natural ligand(s) to each predicted neuropeptide GPCR (receptor deorphanization) is a crucial step during characterization. The development of deorphanization strategies resulted in a significant increase in the knowledge of neuropeptidergic signaling in C. elegans. Complementary localization and functional studies demonstrate that neuropeptides and their GPCRs represent a rich potential source of behavioral variability in C. elegans. Here, we review all neuropeptidergic signaling pathways that so far have been functionally characterized in C. elegans.

Select Neuropeptides and their G-Protein Coupled Receptors in Caenorhabditis Elegans and Drosophila Melanogaster

The G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) family is comprised of seven transmembrane domain proteins and play important roles in nerve transmission, locomotion, proliferation and development, sensory perception, metabolism, and neuromodulation. GPCR research has been targeted by drug developers as a consequence of the wide variety of critical physiological functions regulated by this protein family. Neuropeptide GPCRs are the least characterized of the GPCR family as genetic systems to characterize their functions have lagged behind GPCR gene discovery. Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans are genetic model organisms that have proved useful in characterizing neuropeptide GPCRs. The strength of a genetic approach leads to an appreciation of the behavioral plasticity that can result from subtle alterations in GPCRs or regulatory proteins in the pathways that GPCRs control. Many of these invertebrate neuropeptides, GPCRs, and signaling pathway components serve as models for mammalian counterparts as they have conserved sequences and function. This review provides an overview of the methods to match neuropeptides to their cognate receptor and a state of the art account of neuropeptide GPCRs that have been characterized in D. melanogaster and C. elegans and the behaviors that have been uncovered through genetic manipulation.

Feeding and the rhodopsin family g-protein coupled receptors in nematodes and arthropods

In vertebrates, receptors of the rhodopsin G-protein coupled superfamily (GPCRs) play an important role in the regulation of feeding and energy homeostasis and are activated by peptide hormones produced in the brain-gut axis. These peptides regulate appetite and energy expenditure by promoting or inhibiting food intake. Sequence and function homologs of human GPCRs involved in feeding exist in the nematode roundworm, Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), and the arthropod fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster (D. melanogaster), suggesting that the mechanisms that regulate food intake emerged early and have been conserved during metazoan radiation. Nematodes and arthropods are the most diverse and successful animal phyla on Earth. They can survive in a vast diversity of environments and have acquired distinct life styles and feeding strategies. The aim of the present review is to investigate if this diversity has affected the evolution of invertebrate GPCRs. Homologs of the C. elegans and D. melanogaster rhodopsin receptors were characterized in the genome of other nematodes and arthropods and receptor evolution compared. With the exception of bombesin receptors (BBR) that are absent from nematodes, a similar gene complement was found. In arthropods, rhodopsin GPCR evolution is characterized by species-specific gene duplications and deletions and in nematodes by gene expansions in species with a free-living stage and gene deletions in representatives of obligate parasitic taxa. Based upon variation in GPCR gene number and potentially divergent functions within phyla we hypothesize that life style and feeding diversity practiced by nematodes and arthropods was one factor that contributed to rhodopsin GPCR gene evolution. Understanding how the regulation of food intake has evolved in invertebrates will contribute to the development of novel drugs to control nematodes and arthropods and the pests and diseases that use them as vectors.

Neuropeptide gene families in Caenorhabditis elegans

Neuropeptides are short sequences ofamino acids that function in all multicellular organisms to communicate information between cells. The first sequence ofa neuropeptide was reported in 1970' and the number of identified neuropeptides remained relatively small until the 1990s when the DNA sequence of multiple genomes revealed treasure troves ofinformation. Byblasting away at the genome, gene families, the sizes ofwhich were previously unknown, could now be determined. This information has led to an exponential increase in the number of putative neuropeptides and their respective gene families. The molecular biology age greatly benefited the neuropeptide field in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Its genome was among the first to be sequenced and this allowed us the opportunity to screen the genome for neuropeptide genes. Initially, the screeningwas slow, as the Genefinder and BLAST programs had difficulty identifying small genes and peptides. However, as the bioinformatics programs improved, the extent of the neuropeptide gene families in C. elegans gradually emerged.

Coevolution of neuropeptidergic signaling systems: from worm to man

Despite the general knowledge and repeated predictions of peptide G protein-coupled receptors following the elucidation of the Caenorhabditis elegans genome in 1998, only a few have been deorphanized so far. This was attributed to the apparent lack of coevolution between (neuro)peptides and their cognate receptors. To resolve this issue, we have used an in silico genomic data mining tool to identify the real putative peptide GPCRs in the C. elegans genome and then made a well-considered selection of orphan peptide GPCRs. To maximize our chances of a successful deorphanization, we adopted a combined reverse pharmacology approach. At this moment, we have successfully uncovered four C. elegans neuropeptide signaling systems that support the theory of receptor-ligand coevolution. All four systems are extremely well conserved within nematodes and show a high degree of similarity with their vertebrate and arthropod counterparts. Our data indicate that these four neuropeptide signaling systems have been well conserved during the course of evolution and that they were already well established prior to the divergence of protostomes and deuterostomes.

A review of FMRFamide- and RFamide-like peptides in metazoa

Neuropeptides are a diverse class of signalling molecules that are widely employed as neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in animals, both invertebrate and vertebrate. However, despite their fundamental importance to animal physiology and behaviour, they are much less well understood than the small molecule neurotransmitters. The neuropeptides are classified into families according to similarities in their peptide sequence; and on this basis, the FMRFamide and RFamide-like peptides, first discovered in molluscs, are an example of a family that is conserved throughout the animal phyla. In this review, the literature on these neuropeptides has been consolidated with a particular emphasis on allowing a comparison between data sets in phyla as diverse as coelenterates and mammals. The intention is that this focus on the structure and functional aspects of FMRFamide and RFamide-like neuropeptides will inform understanding of conserved principles and distinct properties of signalling across the animal phyla.

Neuropeptides

The role of neuropeptides in modulating behavior is slowly being elucidated. With the sequencing of the C. elegans genome, the extent of the neuropeptide genes in C. elegans can be determined. To date, 113 neuropeptide genes encoding over 250 distinct neuropeptides have been identified. Of these, 40 genes encode insulin-like peptides, 31 genes encode FMRFamide-related peptides, and 42 genes encode non-insulin, non-FMRFamide-related neuropeptides. As in other systems, C. elegans neuropeptides are derived from precursor molecules that must be post-translationally processed to yield the active peptides. These precursor molecules contain a single peptide, multiple copies of a single peptide, multiple distinct peptides, or any combination thereof. The neuropeptide genes are expressed extensively throughout the nervous system, including in sensory, motor, and interneurons. In addition, some of the genes are also expressed in non-neuronal tissues, such as the somatic gonad, intestine, and vulval hypodermis. To address the effects of neuropeptides on C. elegans behavior, animals in which the different neuropeptide genes are inactivated or overexpressed are being isolated. In a complementary approach the receptors to which the neuropeptides bind are also being identified and examined. Among the knockout animals analyzed thus far, defects in locomotion, dauer formation, egg laying, ethanol response, and social behavior have been reported. These data suggest that neuropeptides have a modulatory role in many, if not all, behaviors in C. elegans.

Discovery of a cholecystokinin-gastrin-like signaling system in nematodes

Members of the cholecystokinin (CCK)/gastrin family of peptides, including the arthropod sulfakinins, and their cognate receptors, play an important role in the regulation of feeding behavior and energy homeostasis. Despite many efforts after the discovery of CCK/gastrin immunoreactivity in nematodes 23 yr ago, the identity of these nematode CCK/gastrin-related peptides has remained a mystery ever since. The Caenorhabditis elegans genome contains two genes with high identity to the mammalian CCK receptors and their invertebrate counterparts, the sulfakinin receptors. By using the potential C. elegans CCK receptors as a fishing hook, we have isolated and identified two CCK-like neuropeptides encoded by neuropeptide-like protein-12 (nlp-12) as the endogenous ligands of these receptors. The neuropeptide-like protein-12 peptides have a very limited neuronal expression pattern, seem to occur in vivo in the unsulfated form, and react specifically with a human CCK-8 antibody. Both receptors and ligands share a high degree of structural similarity with their vertebrate and arthropod counterparts, and also display similar biological activities with respect to digestive enzyme secretion and fat storage. Our data indicate that the gastrin-CCK signaling system was already well established before the divergence of protostomes and deuterostomes.

Evidence for a role for cyclic AMP in modulating the action of 5-HT and an excitatory neuropeptide, FLP17A, in the pharyngeal muscle of Caenorhabditis elegans

The feeding activity of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is regulated by an anatomically well-defined network of 20 enteric neurones that employs small molecule and neuropeptidergic signalling. Two of the most potent excitatory agents are 5-HT and the neuropeptide FLP17A. Here we have examined the role of cAMP in modulating their excitatory actions by pharmacological manipulation of the level of cAMP. Application of the membrane permeable cAMP analogue, dibutyryl-cAMP (1 microM), enhanced the excitatory response to both FLP17A and 5-HT. Furthermore, the adenylyl cyclase activator, forskolin (50 nM), significantly enhanced the excitatory response to both FLP17A and 5-HT. The phosphodiesterase inhibitor, ibudilast (10 microM), enhanced the excitatory response to FLP17A. The protein kinase inhibitor, H-9 dihydrochloride (10 microM) significantly reduced the excitatory response to 5-HT. H-9 dihydrochloride also had a direct effect on pharyngeal activity. The effect of FLP17A and 5-HT on two mutants, egl-8 (loss-of-function phospholipase-Cbeta) and egl-30 (loss-of-function Galphaq) was also investigated. Both these mutants have a lower pharyngeal pumping rate than wild-type which has to be considered when interpreting the effects of these mutations on the excitatory responses to FLP17A and 5HT. However, even taking into consideration the lower basal activity of these mutants, it is clear that the percentage increase in pharyngeal pumping rate induced by FLP17A is greatly reduced in both mutants compared to wild-type. In the case of 5-HT, the effect of the mutant backgrounds on the response was less pronounced. Overall, the data support a role for cAMP in modulating the excitatory action of both FLP17A and 5-HT on C. elegans pharyngeal pumping and furthermore implicate an EGL-30 dependent pathway in the regulation of the response to FLP17A.

Functional characterization of three G protein-coupled receptors for pigment dispersing factors in Caenorhabditis elegans

Here, we report the identification, cloning, and functional characterization of three Caenorhabditis elegans G protein-coupled pigment dispersing factor (PDF) receptors, which we designated as Ce_PDFR-1a, -b, and -c. They represent three splice isoforms of the same gene (C13B9.4), which share a high degree of similarity with the Drosophila PDF receptor and are distantly related to the mammalian vasoactive intestinal peptide receptors (VPAC2) and calcitonin receptors. In a reverse pharmacological screen, three bioactive C. elegans neuropeptides, which were recently identified as the Drosophila PDF orthologues, were able to activate these receptors in a dose-dependent manner with nanomolar potency (isoforms a and b). Integrated green fluorescent protein reporter constructs reveal the expression of these PDF receptors in all body wall muscle cells and many head and tail neurons involved in the integration of environmental stimuli and the control of locomotion. Using a custom data analysis system, we demonstrate the involvement of this newly discovered neuropeptide signaling system in the regulation of locomotor behavior. Overexpression of PDF-2 phenocopies the locomotor defects of a PDF-1 null mutant, suggesting that they elicit opposite effects on locomotion through the identified PDF receptors. Our findings strengthen the hypothesis that the PDF signaling system, which imposes the circadian clock rhythm on behavior in Drosophila, has been functionally conserved throughout the protostomian evolutionary lineage.

FMRFamide-like peptides encoded on the flp-18 precursor gene activate two isoforms of the orphan Caenorhabditis elegans G-protein-coupled receptor Y58G8A.4 heterologously expressed in mammalian cells

Two alternatively spliced variants of an orphan Caenorhabditis elegans G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs; Y58G8A.4a and Y58G8A.4b) were cloned and functionally expressed in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. The Y58G8A.4a and Y58G8A.4b proteins (397 and 433 amino acid residues, respectively) differ both in amino acid sequence and length of the C-terminal tail of the receptor. A calcium mobilization assay was used as a read-out for receptor function. Both receptors were activated, with nanomolar potencies, by putative peptides encoded by the flp-18 precursor gene, leading to their designation as FLP-18R1a (Y58G8A.4a) and FLP-18R1b (Y58G8A.4b). Three Ascaris suum neuropeptides AF3, AF4, and AF20 all sharing the same FLP-18 C-terminal signature, -PGVLRF-NH(2), were also potent agonists. In contrast to other previously reported C. elegans GPCRs expressed in mammalian cells, both FLP-18R1 variants were fully functional at 37 degrees C. However, a 37 to 28 degrees C temperature shift improved their activity, an effect that was more pronounced for FLP-18R1a. Despite differences in the C-terminus, the region implicated in distinct G-protein recognition for many other GPCRs, the same signaling pathways were observed for both Y58G8A.4 isoforms expressed in CHO cells. Gq protein coupling seems to be the main but not the exclusive signaling pathway, because pretreatment of cells with U-73122, a phospholipase inhibitor, attenuated but did not completely abolish the Ca(2+) signal. A weak Gs-mediated receptor activation was also detected as reflected in an agonist-triggered concentration-dependent cAMP increase. The matching of the FLP-18 peptides with their receptor(s) allows for the evaluation of the pharmacology of this system in the worm in vivo.

Ligand screening system using fusion proteins of G protein-coupled receptors with G protein alpha subunits

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute one of the largest families of genes in the human genome, and are the largest targets for drug development. Although a large number of GPCR genes have recently been identified, ligands have not yet been identified for many of them. Various assay systems have been employed to identify ligands for orphan GPCRs, but there is still no simple and general method to screen for ligands of such GPCRs, particularly of G(i)-coupled receptors. We have examined whether fusion proteins of GPCRs with G protein alpha subunit (Galpha) could be utilized for ligand screening and showed that the fusion proteins provide an effective method for the purpose. This article focuses on the followings: (1) characterization of GPCR genes and GPCRs, (2) identification of ligands for orphan GPCRs, (3) characterization of GPCR-Galpha fusion proteins, and (4) identification of ligands for orphan GPCRs using GPCR-Galpha fusion proteins.

Neuropeptidergic signaling in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans joins the menagerie of behavioral model systems next to the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, the marine snail Aplysia californica and the mouse. In contrast to Aplysia, which contains 20,000 neurons having cell bodies of hundreds of microns in diameter, C. elegans harbors only 302 tiny neurons from which the cell lineage is completely described, as is the case for all the other somatic cells. As such, this nervous system appears at first sight incommensurable with those of higher organisms, although genome-wide comparison of predicted C. elegans genes with their counterparts in vertebrates revealed many parallels. Together with its short lifespan and ease of cultivation, suitability for high-throughput genetic screenings and genome-wide RNA interference approaches, access to an advanced genetic toolkit and cell-ablation techniques, it seems that this tiny transparent organism of only 1mm in length has nothing to hide. Recently, highly exciting developments have occurred within the field of neuropeptidergic signaling in C. elegans, not only because of the availability of a sequenced genome since 1998, but especially because of state of the art post genomic technologies, that allow for molecular characterization of the signaling molecules. Here, we will focus on endogenous, bioactive (neuro)peptides and mainly discuss biosynthesis, peptide sequence information, localization and G-protein coupled receptors of the three major peptide families in C. elegans.