Recent therapeutic trends and promising targets in triple negative breast cancer

circSTIL mediates pirarubicin inhibiting the malignant phenotype of triple-negative breast cancer and acts as a biomarker in plasma exosomes

In clinical practice, pirarubicin (THP) is a widely used triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) agent. It has been found that circular RNAs (circRNAs) are involved in cancer treatment and progression. However, the biological function of circRNAs in TNBC and the relationship between THP and circRNAs remain poorly studied. circSTIL (hsa_circ_0000069) was screened and validated by bioinformatics analysis, demonstrating that it was highly expressed in TNBC cell lines and plasma exosomes, and correlated with a poor prognosis of patients. The expression level of circSTIL in patients' plasma exosomes has potential diagnostic value in distinguishing TNBC from non-TNBC. In vitro studies confirmed that overexpression of circSTIL promotes the proliferation, migration, and invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells whereas silicification of circSTIL shows the reverse effect. Also, circSTIL mediates THP inhibiting the malignant phenotype of MDA-MB-231 cells. The above results suggested that circSTIL is a possible biomarker for the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of TNBC.

Application of Nanomaterials in Early Imaging and Advanced Treatment of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a serious disease that poses a significant threat to the global population. In this review, we analyze the development of AS from multiple perspectives, aiming to elucidate its molecular mechanisms. We also focus on imaging techniques and therapeutic approaches, highlighting the crucial role of nanomaterials in both imaging and therapy for AS. By leveraging their compatibility and targeting capabilities, nanomaterials can be integrated with traditional medical imaging and therapeutic agents to achieve targeted drug delivery, controlled release, and precise localization and imaging of atherosclerotic plaques.

Metal-phenolic-network-coated gold nanoclusters for enhanced photothermal/chemodynamic/immunogenic cancer therapy

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive subtype of breast cancer, characterised by a short survival period, high malignancy, strong invasiveness, and high rates of recurrence and metastasis. Due to its unique molecular phenotype, TNBC is insensitive to endocrine therapy or molecular targeted therapy. The conventional treatment approach involves systemic chemotherapy for overall management; however, adjuvant chemotherapy after surgery has shown poor efficacy as residual lesions can easily lead to tumour recurrence. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find more effective treatment strategies. Herein, we designed a gold nanocluster coated with a metal-phenol formaldehyde network structure (AuNCs@PDA-Mn) for tumour Photothermal therapy and chemodynamic therapy (PTT and CDT), which induces systemic immune responses to suppress tumour metastasis. Experimental results show that after continuous irradiation for 10 min under an 808 nm laser (1.0W/cm2), AuNCs@PDA-Mn not only exhibits better tumour inhibition both in vitro and in vivo but also triggers stronger immune effects systemically. Therefore, this combined PTT and CDT treatment approach has great potential and provides a clinically relevant and valuable option for triple-negative breast cancer.

Pharmacological Inhibition of MDM2 Induces Apoptosis in p53-Mutated Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) represents the most aggressive breast carcinoma subtype lacking efficient therapeutic options. A promising approach in cancer treatment is the pharmacological inhibition of murine double minute 2 (MDM2)-p53 interaction inducing apoptosis in p53 wild-type tumors. However, the role of MDM2 in TNBC with primarily mutant p53 is not well understood. We here selected the clinical-stage MDM2 inhibitors Idasanutlin and Milademetan and investigated their anti-tumoral effects in TNBC. When we analyzed anti-tumor activity in the TNBC cell lines MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-436, and MDA-MB-468, cellular viability was efficiently reduced, with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values ranging between 2.00 and 7.62 µM being up to 11-fold lower compared to the well-characterized non-clinical-stage MDM2 inhibitor Nutlin-3a. Furthermore, caspase-3/7 activity was efficiently induced. Importantly, the IC50 values for MDM2 inhibition were equally observed in HCT116 p53+/+ or HCT116 p53-/- cells. Finally, the IC50 was significantly higher in non-malignant MCF-10A cells than in TNBC cells. Taken together, Idasanutlin and Milademetan show a potent anti-tumor activity in TNBC cell culture models by efficiently inducing tumor cell death via apoptosis. This effect was observed despite an inactivating p53 mutation and was apparently independent of p53 expression. Our data suggest that MDM2 is a promising target in TNBC and clinical-stage MDM2 inhibitors should be further evaluated for their potential therapeutic application.

Insights into the Emerging Therapeutic Targets of Triple-negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative Breast Cancer (TNBC), the most aggressive breast cancer subtype, is characterized by the non-appearance of estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). Clinically, TNBC is marked by its low survival rate, poor therapeutic outcomes, high aggressiveness, and lack of targeted therapies. Over the past few decades, many clinical trials have been ongoing for targeted therapies in TNBC. Although some classes, such as Poly (ADP Ribose) Polymerase (PARP) inhibitors and immunotherapies, have shown positive therapeutic outcomes, however, clinical effects are not much satisfiable. Moreover, the development of drug resistance is the major pattern observed in many targeted monotherapies. The heterogeneity of TNBC might be the cause for limited clinical benefits. Hence,, there is a need for the potential identification of new therapeutic targets to address the above limitations. In this context, some novel targets that can address the above-mentioned concerns are emerging in the era of TNBC therapy, which include Hypoxia Inducible Factor (HIF-1α), Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9), Tumour Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α), β-Adrenergic Receptor (β-AR), Voltage Gated Sodium Channels (VGSCs), and Cell Cycle Regulators. Currently, we summarize the ongoing clinical trials and discuss the novel therapeutic targets in the management of TNBC.

Triple-helix β-glucan-based self-assemblies, synthesis, characterization and anticarcinogenic effect

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) seriously endangers women's life and health due to its high invasion and mortality. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) mediated tumor cells apoptosis is considered an effective anticancer approach. Herein, we designed a natural active triple helix β-Glucan (BFP) wrapped single walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs)-loaded doxorubicin (DOX) self-assembly (BSD) via generating excess ROS to induce oxidative stress damage for TNBC therapy. BSD could directly consume glutathione (GSH) to promote ROS. In vitro results demonstrated that BSD exhibited obvious antitumor effects to breast cancer cells by promoting apoptosis. Un-targeted metabolomics under molecular level identified the specific metabolic targets and unveiled that BSD markedly disturbed multiple metabolic pathways, including purine metabolism, pentose phosphate pathway, glutathione metabolism pathways, amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism and energy metabolism, led to the inhibition of DNA and RNA synthesis, the generation of ROS, the exacerbation of DNA damage, the disruption of cell membrane integrity and the decrease of ATP. In vitro and in vivo oxidative stress assays further verified that BSD significantly promoted intracellular oxidative stress and resulted in cell damage. This study provides theoretical basis for the development and screening of new drugs based on ROS therapy for TNBC.

Epoxy metabolites of linoleic acid promote the development of breast cancer via orchestrating PLEC/NFκB1/CXCL9-mediated tumor growth and metastasis

Breast cancer (BC) is a common malignant tumor in women and requires a comprehensive understanding of its pathogenesis for the development of new therapeutic strategies. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) metabolism-driven inflammation is a causative factor in cancer development. However, the function of PUFAs' metabolism in BC remains largely unknown. Here we report the role and underlying mechanism of epoxyoctadecenoic acids (EpOMEs), the metabolites of linoleic acid mediated by cytochrome P450 (CYP) monooxygenases, in promoting the development of BC, particularly triple-negative BC (TNBC). A metabolomics study identified that EpOMEs were significantly increased in the plasma of BC patients and MMTV-PyMT mice, which accounted for the upregulation of CYP2J2 in BC tumor tissues and tumor cells. Decreased EpOMEs by treatment of CYP monooxygenase inhibitors significantly alleviated tumor development in MMTV-PyMT mice. Treatment with EpOMEs and overexpression of CYP2J2 to increase EpOMEs in TNBC cells significantly promoted cellular proliferation, migration, tumor growth, and metastasis. Whereas knockdown of CYP2J2 to decrease EpOMEs inhibited tumorigenesis and lung metastasis of TNBC, which was reversed by EpOME administration. Transcriptomics and proteomics analyses revealed CXCL9 and PLEC were critical for EpOME-mediated promotion of TNBC. Knockdown of CXCL9 and PLEC inhibited TNBC progression and EpOME-mediated promotion of TNBC. Both overexpression of CYP2J2 and EpOME treatment upregulate PLEC, while PLEC upregulates NFκB1, which is a transcription regulator of CXCL9. This study extends the understanding of the function of PUFAs metabolism in BC development, providing potential therapeutic targets and dietary guidelines for patients with TNBC and other BCs. The illustration of the hypothetical mechanism CYP2J2/EpOMEs promotes the tumorigenesis and metastasis of TNBC via PLEC/NFKB1/CXCL9 signaling pathway.

Integrated analysis of hub genes and intrinsically disordered regions in triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most prevalent breast cancer subtype. Its prognosis is poor because there are no effective treatment targets. Despite several attempts, the molecular pathways of TNBC remain unknown, posing a significant clinical barrier in the search for viable targets. Two microarray datasets were used to identify possible targets for TNBC, GSE38959 and GSE45827, retrieved from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in TNBC samples compared with normal samples were identified using the GEO2R program. KEGG pathway enrichment and Gene Ontology functions were assessed for DEG pathways and functional annotation using ShinyGO 0.77. The STRING database and Cytoscape program were used for protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis. Furthermore, we evaluated the predictive significance of hub gene expression in TNBC patients using the GEPIA2 online tool. We developed a comprehensive technique to assess whether intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) are present in the TNBC hub genes. There were 48 DEGs were identified, all of which were upregulated. A putative protein complex containing these four core genes was selected for further analysis. Breast cancer patients with TTK, TOP2A, CENPF, and CCNA2 upregulation had a poor prognosis; TTK and CCNA2 were partially disordered, whereas TOP2A and CENPF were primarily disordered, according to IDR analysis. According to our study, TOP2A and CENPF may be useful therapeutic targets for disruption of the TNBC PPI network.

Activation of the γ-secretase/NICD-PXR/Notch pathway induces Taxol resistance in triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is currently the only subtype lacking efficient targeted therapies. Taxol is the primary chemotherapeutic agent for TNBC. However, Taxol resistance often develops in the treatment of TNBC patients, which importantly contributes to high mortality and poor prognosis in TNBC patients. Recent preclinical studies have shown that the inhibition of Notch pathway by γ-secretase inhibitors can slow down the progression of TNBC. Our studies in bioinformatic analysis of breast cancer patients and TNBC/Taxol cells in vitro showed that there was high correlation between the activation of Notch pathway and Taxol resistance in TNBC. Increased γ-secretase activity (by the overexpression of catalytic core PSEN-1) significantly reduced Taxol sensitivity of TNBC cells, and enhanced biological characteristics of malignancy in vitro, and tumour growth in vivo. Mechanistically, increased γ-secretase activity led to the accumulation of NICD in the nucleus, promoting the interaction between NICD and PXR to activate PXR, which triggered the transcription of PXR downstream associated drug resistance genes. Furthermore, we showed that pharmacological inhibition of γ-secretase with γ-secretase inhibitors (Nirogacestat and DAPT) can reverse Taxol resistance in vivo and in vitro. Our results for the first time demonstrate that the activation of γ -secretase/NCD-PXR/Notch pathway is one of important mechanisms to cause Taxol resistance in TNBC, and the blockades of this pathway may represent a new therapeutic strategy for overcoming Taxol resistance in TNBC.

Lactobacillus reuteri Assists Engineered Bacteria That Target Tumors to Release PD-L1nb to Mitigate the Adverse Effects of Breast Cancer Immunotherapy

Programmed death protein-ligand 1 (PD-L1) inhibitors demonstrate significant antitumor efficacy by modulating T-cell activity and inhibiting the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway, thus enhancing immune responses. Despite their robust effects, systemic administration of these inhibitors is linked to severe immune toxicity. To address this issue, we engineered a strain, REP, which releases PD-L1 nanoantibodies (PD-L1nb) to treat breast cancer and attenuate immunotherapy-related side effects. REP selectively targets tumors and periodically releases PD-L1nb within tumors via a quorum-sensing lysis system. Administration of 108 colony-forming units (CFU) of REP led to a substantial 52% reduction in tumor growth, achieved through the sustained release of PD-L1nb. Importantly, there were no detectable lesions in other organs, with the exception of mild intestinal damage. Further, we explored the potential of a combined treatment using Lactobacillus reuteri (LR) and REP to alleviate intestinal inflammation. LR modulates the expression of inflammatory markers IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 through the JNK pathway, reducing intestinal inflammation without compromising REP's antitumor efficacy. Consequently, we formulated a dual strategy employing an engineered strain and probiotics to reduce the adverse effects of immunotherapy in cancer treatment.

A Dual-Payload Antibody-Drug Conjugate Targeting CD276/B7-H3 Elicits Cytotoxicity and Immune Activation in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly aggressive and heterogeneous disease that often relapses following treatment with standard radiotherapies and cytotoxic chemotherapies. Combination therapies have potential for treating refractory metastatic TNBC. In this study, we aimed to develop an antibody-drug conjugate with dual payloads (DualADC) as a chemoimmunotherapy for TNBC. The overexpression of an immune checkpoint transmembrane CD276 (also known as B7-H3) was associated with angiogenesis, metastasis, and immune tolerance in more than 60% of patients with TNBC. Development of a mAb capable of targeting the extracellular domain of surface CD276 enabled delivery of payloads to tumors, and a platform was established for concurrent conjugation of a traditional cytotoxic payload and an immunoregulating Toll-like receptor 7/8 agonist to the CD276 mAb. The DualADC effectively killed multiple TNBC subtypes, significantly enhanced immune functions in the tumor microenvironment, and reduced tumor burden by up to 90% to 100% in animal studies. Single-cell RNA sequencing, multiplex cytokine analysis, and histology elucidated the impact of treatment on tumor cells and the immune landscape. This study suggests that the developed DualADC could represent a promising targeted chemoimmunotherapy for TNBC. Significance: An anti-CD276 monoclonal antibody conjugated with both a cytotoxic drug and an immune boosting reagent effectively targets triple-negative breast cancer by inducing tumor cell death and stimulating immune cell infiltration.

Research on therapeutic clinical trials including immunotherapy in triple-negative breast cancer: a bibliometric analysis

Background

Breast cancer, particularly triple-negative (TNBC), is a leading malignancy with aggressive traits and high metastasis rates. Clinical trial is an important tool for optimizing therapeutic strategies in the evaluation of the safety and efficacy for TNBC. Our bibliometric study of TNBC clinical trials aims to assess therapeutic strategies, identify trends, and explore advancements in treatment. We focus on mapping knowledge development, including key research entities and topics, and analyzing research trends and emerging methods. This analysis intends to inform future research, especially in personalized and precision medicine for TNBC.

Methods

We selected publications on clinical trials for the treatment of TNBC from 1997 to 2024 in the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC). After an initial screening, we downloaded key data including titles, publication years, authors, countries, institutional affiliations, journals, keywords, and abstracts, and saved them in BibTex format. We then conducted a bibliometric analysis using Bibliometrix in R and VOSviewer to illustrate the prospects, highlights, and trends of TNBC treatment options. Furthermore, to emphasize the hot topics in TNBC treatment strategies, we performed a bibliometric analysis of immunotherapy using the same approach.

Results

1907 publications were included, most of which were from China, Italy, and the United States. The number of annual publications has increased dramatically since 2010. The focus of TNBC clinical trial research has shifted from understanding the biology, such as breast cancer subtyping and genotyping, to novel therapeutic approaches. The major advancement in clinical trials is the switch from late-stage palliative treatment to early preoperative neoadjuvant therapy, as more TNBC cases are discovered at an early stage. Immunotherapy is also highlighted with additional alternatives for advanced or metastasized TNBC, such as targeted inhibitors with unusual mutation rates and antibody drug conjugates (ADC).

Conclusions

This investigation made it apparent how immunotherapy has recently made major advancements in TNBC treatment plans and how ADCs, or targeted therapies, are currently popular for TNBC. By identifying significant papers, comprehending trending topics, and collaborating across multiple disciplines, this study may accelerate research on TNBC therapy options.

Exploring potential molecular targets and therapeutic efficacy of beauvericin in triple-negative breast cancer cells

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) presents a significant global health concern due to its aggressive nature, high mortality rate and limited treatment options, highlighting the urgent need for targeted therapies. Beauvericin, a bioactive fungal secondary metabolite, possess significant anticancer potential, although its molecular targets in cancer cells remain unexplored. This study has investigated possible molecular targets of beauvericin and its therapeutic insights in TNBC cells. In silico studies using molecular docking and MD simulation predicted the molecular targets of beauvericin. The identified targets included MRP-1 (ABCC1), HDAC-1, HDAC-2, LCK and SYK with average binding energy of -90.1, -44.3, -72.1, -105 and -60.8 KJ/mol, respectively, implying its multifaceted roles in reversing drug resistance, inhibiting epigenetic modulators and oncogenic tyrosine kinases. Beauvericin has significantly reduced the viability of MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells, with IC50 concentrations of 4.4 and 3.9 µM, while concurrently elevating the intracellular ROS by 9.0 and 7.9 folds, respectively. Subsequent reduction of mitochondrial transmembrane potential in TNBC cells, has confirmed the induction of oxidative stress, leading to apoptotic cell death, as observed by flow cytometric analyses. Beauvericin has also arrested cell cycle at G1-phase and impaired the spheroid formation and clonal expansion abilities of TNBC cells. The viability of spheroids was reduced upon beauvericin treatment, exhibiting IC50 concentrations of 10.3 and 6.2 µM in MDA-MB-468 and MDA-MB-231 cells, respectively. In conclusion, beauvericin has demonstrated promising therapeutic potential against TNBC cells through possible inhibition of MRP-1 (ABCC1), HDAC-1, HDAC-2, LCK and SYK.

Formononetin triggers ferroptosis in triple-negative breast cancer cells by regulating the mTORC1/SREBP1/SCD1 pathway

Introduction

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most malignant type of breast cancer, and its prognosis is still the worst. It is necessary to constantly explore the pathogenesis and effective therapeutic targets of TNBC. Formononetin is an active ingredient with anti-tumor effects that we screened earlier. The main purpose of this study is to elucidate mechanism of the inhibitory effect of Formononetin on TNBC.

Methods

We conducted experiments through both in vivo and in vitro methodologies. The in vivo experiments utilized a nude mice xenotransplantation model, while the in vitro investigations employed two breast cancer cell lines, MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468. Concurrently, ferroptosis associated proteins, lipid peroxide levels, and proteins related to the rapamycin complex 1 were analyzed in both experimental settings.

Results

In our study, Formononetin exhibits significant inhibitory effects on the proliferation of triple TNBC, both in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, it elicits an increase in lipid peroxide levels, downregulates the expression of ferroptosis-associated proteins GPX4 and xCT, and induces ferroptosis in breast cancer cells. Concurrently, Formononetin impedes the formation of the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) and suppresses the expression of downstream Sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1(SREBP1). The utilization of breast cancer cells with SREBP1 overexpression or knockout demonstrates that Formononetin induces ferroptosis by modulating the mTORC1-SREBP1 signaling axis.

Discussion

In conclusion, this study provides evidence that Formononetin exerts an anti-proliferative effect on triple-negative breast cancer by inducing ferroptosis. Moreover, the mTORC1-SREBP1 signal axis is identified as the primary mechanism through which formononetin exerts its therapeutic effects. These findings suggest that formononetin holds promise as a potential targeted drug for clinical treatment of TNBC.

Combined knockdown of CD151 and MMP9 may inhibit the malignant biological behaviours of triple-negative breast cancer through the GSK-3β/β-catenin-related pathway

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) represents a significant health concern for women worldwide, and the overproduction of MMP9 and CD151 is associated with various cancers, influencing tumour growth and progression. This study aimed to investigate how CD151 and MMP9 affect TNBC cell migration, apoptosis, proliferation, and invasion. Immunohistochemical experiments revealed that CD151 and MMP9 were positively expressed in triple-negative breast cancer, and lymph node metastasis, the histological grade, and CD151 and MMP9 expression were found to be independent prognostic factors for the survival of patients with triple-negative breast cancer. Cytological experiments indicated that the knockdown of CD151 or MMP9 slowed triple-negative breast cancer cell growth, migration, and invasion and increased the apoptosis rate. Compared with CD151 knockdown, double MMP9 and CD151 knockdown further promoted cell death and inhibited TNBC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Moreover, β-catenin and p-GSK-3β were significantly downregulated. In summary, simultaneously silencing CD151 and MMP9 further suppressed the proliferation, migration and invasion of TNBC cells and promoted their apoptosis. One possible strategy for inducing this effect is to block the GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway.

H3K27ac-induced RHOXF2 activates Wnt2/β-catenin pathway by binding to HOXC13 to aggravate the malignant progression of triple negative breast cancer

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is insensitive to conventional targeted therapy and endocrine therapy, and is characterized by high invasiveness and high recurrence rate. This study aimed to explore the role and mechanism of RHOXF2 and HOXC13 on the malignant progression of TNBC. RT-qPCR and western blot were used to detect RHOXF2 and HOXC13 expression in TNBC cells. The proliferation, colony formation, invasion, migration, apoptosis and cell cycle of TNBC cells after transfection were analyzed by CCK-8 assay, colony formation assay, transwell assay, wound healing assay and flow cytometry analysis. Co-Immunoprecipitation and GST pull-down assays were used to analyze the combination between RHOXF2 and HOXC13. ChIP-PCR and luciferase reporter gene assay were used to examine the regulation of H3K27ac on RHOXF2. Besides, the expression of Ki67 and cleaved Caspase3 in tumor tissues of nude mice was determined by immunofluorescence. Results revealed that RHOXF2 and HOXC13 expression was increased in TNBC cells. RHOXF2 knockdown suppressed the proliferation, invasion and migration, as well as induced G0/G1 cell cycle arrest and apoptosis of TNBC cells. Besides, RHOXF2 could bind to HOXC13 and RHOXF2 knockdown suppressed HOXC13 expression in TNBC cells. Furthermore, HOXC13 overexpression reversed the impacts of RHOXF2 downregulation on the proliferation, invasion, migration, G0/G1 cell cycle arrest and apoptosis of TNBC cells. In addition, RHOXF2 silencing limited the tumor volume in nude mice, which was reversed by HOXC13 overexpression. Moreover, RHOXF2 knockdown interfered with Wnt2/β-catenin pathway in vitro and in vivo by binding to HOXC13. Importantly, H3K27ac acetylation could activate the expression of RHOXF2 promoter region. In conclusion, RHOXF2 activated by H3K27ac functioned as a tumor promoter in TNBC via mediating Wnt2/β-catenin pathway by binding to HOXC13, which provided promising insight into exploration on TNBC therapy.

Gallic acid-loaded chitosan nanoparticles enhance the DNA damage and apoptotic features through inhibiting flap endonuclease-1 in triple-negative breast cancer cells

This study investigated the fabrication of gallic acid-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (Gal-Chi-NPs) that enhanced the DNA damage and apoptotic features by inhibiting FEN-1 expressions in MDA-MB 231 cells. Gal-Chi-NPs were fabricated by the ionic gelation method, and it was characterized by several studies such as dynamic light spectroscopy, Fourier-transforms infrared spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive x-ray, atomic force microscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. We have obtained that Gal-Chi-NPs displayed 182.2 nm with crystal, smooth surface, and heat stability in nature. Gal-Chi-NPs induce significant toxicity in MDA-MB-231 cells that compared with normal NIH-3T3 cells. A significant reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduction was observed in Gal-Chi-NPs treated MDA-MB-231. Flap endonuclease-1 (FEN-1) is a crucial protein involved in long patch base excision repair that is involved in repairing the chemotherapeutic mediated DNA-damaged base. Therefore, inhibition of FEN-1 protein expression is a crucial target for enhancing chemotherapeutical efficacy. In this study, we have obtained that Gal-Chi-NPs treatment enhanced the DNA damage by observing increased p-H2AX, PARP1; and suppressed the expression of FEN-1 in MDA-MB-231 cells. Moreover, Gal-Chi-NPs inhibited the expression of tumor proliferating markers p-PI3K, AKT, cyclin-D1, PCNA, and BCL-2; induced proapoptotic proteins (Bax and caspase-3) in MDA-MB 231 cells. Thus, Gal-Chi-NPs induce DNA damage and apoptotic features and inhibit tumor proliferation by suppressing FEN-1 expression in triple-negative breast cancer cells.

Rare Earth Nanoprobes for Targeted Delineation of Triple Negative Breast Cancer and Enhancement of Radioimmunotherapy

Radiotherapy demonstrates a synergistic effect with immunotherapy by inducing a transformation of "immune cold" tumors into "immune hot" tumors in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). Nevertheless, the effectiveness of immunotherapy is constrained by low expression of tumor-exposed antigens, inadequate inflammation, and insufficient tumor infiltrating lymphocyte (TILs). To address this predicament, novel lutecium-based rare earth nanoparticles (RENPs) are synthesized with the aim of amplifying radiation effect and tumor immune response. The nanoprobe is characterized by neodymium-based down-conversion fluorescence, demonstrating robust photostability, biocompatibility, and targetability. The conjugation of RENPs with a CXCR4 targeted drug enables precise delineation of breast tumors using a near-infrared imaging system and improves radiation efficacy via lutetium-based radio-sensitizer in vivo. Furthermore, the study shows a notable enhancement of immune response through the induction of immunogenic cell death and recruitment of TILs, resulting in the inhibition of tumor progression both in vitro and in vivo models following the administration of nanoparticles. Hence, the novel multifunctional nanoprobes incorporating various lanthanide elements offer the potential for imaging-guided tumor delineation, radio-sensitization, and immune activation post-radiation, thus presenting an efficient radio-immunotherapeutic approach for TNBC.

Aptamer-functionalized triptolide with release controllability as a promising targeted therapy against triple-negative breast cancer

Targeted delivery and precise release of toxins is a prospective strategy for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), yet the flexibility to incorporate both properties simultaneously remains tremendously challenging in the X-drug conjugate fields. As critical components in conjugates, linkers could flourish in achieving optimal functionalities. Here, we pioneered a pH-hypersensitive tumor-targeting aptamer AS1411-triptolide conjugate (AS-TP) to achieve smart release of the toxin and targeted therapy against TNBC. The multifunctional acetal ester linker in the AS-TP site-specifically blocked triptolide toxicity, quantitatively sustained aptamer targeting, and ensured the circulating stability. Furthermore, the aptamer modification endowed triptolide with favorable water solubility and bioavailability and facilitated endocytosis of conjugated triptolide by TNBC cells in a nucleolin-dependent manner. The integrated superiorities of AS-TP promoted the preferential intra-tumor triptolide accumulation in xenografted TNBC mice and triggered the in-situ triptolide release in the weakly acidic tumor microenvironment, manifesting striking anti-TNBC efficacy and virtually eliminated toxic effects beyond clinical drugs. This study illustrated the therapeutic potential of AS-TP against TNBC and proposed a promising concept for the development of nucleic acid-based targeted anticancer drugs.

Tuning Peptide-Based Nanofibers for Achieving Selective Doxorubicin Delivery in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Introduction

The design of delivery tools that efficiently transport drugs into cells remains a major challenge in drug development for most pathological conditions. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a very aggressive subtype of breast cancer with poor prognosis and limited effective therapeutic options.

Purpose

In TNBC treatment, chemotherapy remains the milestone, and doxorubicin (Dox) represents the first-line systemic treatment; however, its non-selective distribution causes a cascade of side effects. To address these problems, we developed a delivery platform based on the self-assembly of amphiphilic peptides carrying several moieties on their surfaces, aimed at targeting, enhancing penetration, and therapy.

Methods

Through a single-step self-assembly process, we used amphiphilic peptides to obtain nanofibers decorated on their surfaces with the selected moieties. The surface of the nanofiber was decorated with a cell-penetrating peptide (gH625), an EGFR-targeting peptide (P22), and Dox bound to the cleavage sequence selectively recognized and cleaved by MMP-9 to obtain on-demand drug release. Detailed physicochemical and cellular analyses were performed.

Results

The obtained nanofiber (NF-Dox) had a length of 250 nm and a diameter of 10 nm, and it was stable under dilution, ionic strength, and different pH environments. The biological results showed that the presence of gH625 favored the complete internalization of NF-Dox after 1h in MDA-MB 231 cells, mainly through a translocation mechanism. Interestingly, we observed the absence of toxicity of the carrier (NF) on both healthy cells such as HaCaT and TNBC cancer lines, while a similar antiproliferative effect was observed on TNBC cells after the treatment with the free-Dox at 50 µM and NF-Dox carrying 7.5 µM of Dox.

Discussion

We envision that this platform is extremely versatile and can be used to efficiently carry and deliver diverse moieties. The knowledge acquired from this study will provide important guidelines for applications in basic research and biomedicine.

Biomimetic "nano-spears" for CAFs-targeting: splintered three "shields" with enhanced cisplatin anti-TNBC efficiency

The treatment dilemma of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) revolves around drug resistance and metastasis. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) contribute to cisplatin (Cis) resistance and further metastasis in TNBC, making TNBC a difficult-to-treat disease. The dense stromal barrier which restricts drug delivery, invasive phenotype of tumor cells, and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) induced by CAFs serve as three "shields" for TNBC against Cis therapy. Here, we designed a silybin-loaded biomimetic nanoparticle coated with anisamide-modified red blood cell membrane (ARm@SNP) as a "nanospear" for CAFs-targeting, which could shatter the "shields" and significantly exhibit inhibitory effect on 4T1 cells in combination with Cis both in vitro and in vivo. The ARm@SNP/Cis elicited 4T1 tumor growth arrest and destroyed three "shields" as follows: disintegrating the stromal barrier by inhibiting blood vessels growth and the expression of fibronectin; decreasing 4T1 cell invasion and metastasis by affecting the TGF-β/Twist/EMT pathway which impeded EMT activation; reversing the immunosuppressive microenvironment by increasing the activity and infiltration of immunocompetent cells. Based on CAFs-targeting, ARm@SNP reversed the resistance of Cis, remodeled the TME and inhibited invasion and metastasis while significantly improving the therapeutic effect of Cis on 4T1 tumor-bearing mice, providing a promising approach for treating intractable TNBC.

Molecular pathways and therapeutic targets linked to triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC)

Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled cellular growth, abnormal morphology, and altered proliferation. Cancerous cells lose their ability to act as anchors, allowing them to spread throughout the body and infiltrate nearby cells, tissues, and organs. If these cells are not identified and treated promptly, they will likely spread. Around 70% of female breast cancers are caused by a mutation in the BRCA gene, specifically BRCA1. The absence of progesterone, oestrogen and HER2 receptors (human epidermal growth factor) distinguishes the TNBC subtype of breast cancer. There were approximately 6,85,000 deaths worldwide and 2.3 million new breast cancer cases in women in 2020. Breast cancer is the most common cancer globally, affecting 7.8 million people at the end of 2020. Compared to other cancer types, breast cancer causes more women to lose disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). Worldwide, women can develop breast cancer at any age after puberty, but rates increase with age. The maintenance of mammary stem cell stemness is disrupted in TNBC, governed by signalling cascades controlling healthy mammary gland growth and development. Interpreting these essential cascades may facilitate an in-depth understanding of TNBC cancer and the search for an appropriate therapeutic target. Its treatment remains challenging because it lacks specific receptors, which renders hormone therapy and medications ineffective. In addition to radiotherapy, numerous recognized chemotherapeutic medicines are available as inhibitors of signalling pathways, while others are currently undergoing clinical trials. This article summarizes the vital druggable targets, therapeutic approaches, and strategies associated with TNBC.

3D sponge loaded with cisplatin-CS-calcium alginate MPs utilized as a void-filling prosthesis for the efficient postoperative prevention of tumor recurrence and metastasis

Intraoperative bleeding is a pivotal factor in the initiation of early recurrence and tumor metastasis following breast cancer excision. Distinct advantages are conferred upon postoperative breast cancer treatment through the utilization of locally administered implant therapies. This study devised a novel 3D sponge implant containing cisplatin-loaded chitosan-calcium alginate MPs capable of exerting combined chemotherapy and hemostasis effects. This innovative local drug-delivery implant absorbed blood and residual tumor cells post-tumor resection. Furthermore, the cisplatin-loaded chitosan-calcium alginate MPs sustainably targeted and eliminated cancer cells, thereby diminishing the risk of local recurrence and distant metastasis. This hydrogel material can also contribute to breast reconstruction, indicating the potential application of the 3D sponge in drug delivery for breast cancer treatment.

A Drug Molecule-Modified Graphene Field-Effect Transistor Nanosensor for Rapid, Label-Free, and Ultrasensitive Detection of Estrogen Receptor α Protein

Estrogen receptor α (ERα) is an important biomarker in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment. Sensitive and accurate detection of ERα protein expression is crucial in guiding selection of an appropriate therapeutic strategy to improve the effectiveness and prognosis of breast cancer treatment. Herein, we report a liquid-gated graphene field-effect transistor (FET) biosensor that enables rapid, sensitive, and label-free detection of the ERα protein by employing a novel drug molecule as a capture probe. The drug molecule was synthesized and subsequently immobilized onto the sensing surface of the fabricated graphene FET, which was able to distinguish the ERα-positive from the ERα-negative protein. The developed sensor not only demonstrated a low detection limit (LOD: 2.62 fM) but also achieved a fast response to ERα protein samples within 30 min. Moreover, depending on the relationship between the change of dirac point and the ERα protein concentrations, the dissociation constant (Kd) was estimated to be 7.35 ± 0.06 pM, indicating that the drug probe-modified graphene FET had a good affinity with ERα protein. The nanosensor was able to analyze ERα proteins from 36 cell samples lysates. These results show that the graphene FET sensor was able to differentiate between ERα-positive and ERα-negative cells, indicating a promising biosensor for the ultrasensitive and rapid detection of ERα protein without antibody labeling.

Pronecroptotic Therapy Using Ceramide Nanoliposomes Is Effective for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells

Regulated necrosis, termed necroptosis, represents a potential therapeutic target for refractory cancer. Ceramide nanoliposomes (CNLs), considered potential chemotherapeutic agents, induce necroptosis by targeting the activating protein mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL). In the present study, we examined the potential of pronecroptotic therapy using CNLs for refractory triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), for which there is a lack of definite and effective therapeutic targets among the various immunohistological subtypes of breast cancer. MLKL mRNA expression in tumor tissues was significantly higher in TNBC patients than in those with non-TNBC subtypes. Similarly, among the 50 breast cancer cell lines examined, MLKL expression was higher in TNBC-classified cell lines. TNBC cell lines were more susceptible to the therapeutic effects of CNLs than the non-TNBC subtypes of breast cancer cell lines. In TNBC-classified MDA-MB-231 cells, the knockdown of MLKL suppressed cell death induced by CNLs or the active substance short-chain C6-ceramide. Accordingly, TNBC cells were prone to CNL-evoked necroptotic cell death. These results will contribute to the development of CNL-based pronecroptotic therapy for TNBC.

Efficacy and Mechanism of a Biomimetic Nanosystem Carrying Doxorubicin and an IDO Inhibitor for Treatment of Advanced Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Introduction

Chemotherapy is still the treatment of choice for advanced triple-negative breast cancer. Chemotherapy combined with immunotherapy is being tried in patients with triple-negative breast cancer. As a kind of "cold tumor", triple-negative breast cancer has a bottleneck in immunotherapy. Indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase-1 inhibitors can reverse the immunosuppressive state and enhance the immune response.

Methods

In this study, mesoporous silica nanoparticles were coated with the chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin and indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase 1 inhibitor 1-Methyl-DL-tryptophan (1-MT), and then encapsulate the surfaces of a triple-negative breast cancer cell membrane to construct the tumor dual-targeted delivery system CDIMSN for chemotherapy and immunotherapy, and to investigate the immunogenic death effect of CDIMSN.

Results and discussion

The CDIMSN could target the tumor microenvironment. Doxorubicin induced tumor immunogenic death, while 1-MT reversed immunosuppression. In vivo findings showed that the tumor size in the CDIMSN group was 2.66-fold and 1.56-fold smaller than that in DOX and DIMSN groups, respectively. CDIMSN group was better than naked DIMSN in stimulating CD8+T cells, CD4+T cells and promoting Dendritic Cells(DC) maturation. In addition, blood analysis, biochemical analysis and Hematoxylin staining analysis of mice showed that the bionic nanoparticles had good biological safety.

Exploring the resistance mechanism of triple-negative breast cancer to paclitaxel through the scRNA-seq analysis

BACKGROUND

The triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most malignant subtype of breast cancer with high aggressiveness. Although paclitaxel-based chemotherapy scenario present the mainstay in TNBC treatment, paclitaxel resistance is still a striking obstacle for cancer cure. So it is imperative to probe new therapeutic targets through illustrating the mechanisms underlying paclitaxel chemoresistance.

METHODS

The Single cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data of TNBC cells treated with paclitaxel at different points were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. The Seurat R package was used to filter and integrate the scRNA-seq expression matrix. Cells were further clustered by the FindClusters function, and the gene marker of each subset was defined by FindAllMarkers function. Then, the hallmark score of each cell was calculated by AUCell R package, the biological function of the highly expressed interest genes was analyzed by the DAVID database. Subsequently, we performed pseudotime analysis to explore the change patterns of drug resistance genes and SCENIC analysis to identify the key transcription factors (TFs). Finally, the inhibitors of which were also analyzed by the CTD database.

RESULTS

We finally obtained 6 cell subsets from 2798 cells, which were marked as AKR1C3+, WNT7A+, FAM72B+, RERG+, IDO1+ and HEY1+HCC1143 cell subsets, among which the AKR1C3+, IDO1+ and HEY1+ cell subsets proportions increased with increasing treatment time, and then were regarded as paclitaxel resistance subsets. Hallmark score and pseudotime analysis showed that these paclitaxel resistance subsets were associated with the inflammatory response, virus and interferon response activation. In addition, the gene regulatory networks (GRNs) indicated that 3 key TFs (STAT1, CEBPB and IRF7) played vital role in promoting resistance development, and five common inhibitors targeted these TFs as potential combination therapies of paclitaxel were identified.

CONCLUSION

In this study, we identified 3 paclitaxel resistance relevant IFs and their inhibitors, which offers essential molecular basis for paclitaxel resistance and beneficial guidance for the combination of paclitaxel in clinical TNBC therapy.

PLK1 and PARP positively correlate in Middle Eastern breast cancer and their combined inhibition overcomes PARP inhibitor resistance in triple negative breast cancer

Background

Despite advancements in treatment approaches, patients diagnosed with aggressive breast cancer (BC) subtypes typically face an unfavorable prognosis. Globally, these cancers continue to pose a significant threat to women's health, leading to substantial morbidity and mortality. Consequently, there has been a significant struggle to identify viable molecular targets for therapeutic intervention in these patients. Polo-like Kinase-1 (PLK1) represents one of these molecular targets currently undergoing rigorous scrutiny for the treatment of such tumors. Yet, its role in the pathogenesis of BC in Middle Eastern ethnicity remains unexplored.

Methods

We investigated the expression of PLK1 protein in a cohort of more than 1500 Middle Eastern ethnicity BC cases by immunohistochemistry. Association with clinicopathological parameters and prognosis were performed. In vitro studies were conducted using the PLK1 inhibitor volasertib and the PARP inhibitor olaparib, either alone or in combination, in PTC cell lines.

Results

Overexpression of PLK1 was detected in 27.4% of all BC cases, and this was notably correlated with aggressive clinicopathological markers. PLK1 was enriched in the triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) subtype and exhibited poor overall survival (p = 0.0347). Notably, there was a positive correlation between PLK1 and PARP overexpression, with co-expression of PLK1 and PARP observed in 15.7% of cases and was associated with significantly poorer overall survival (OS) compared to the overexpression of either protein alone (p = 0.0050). In vitro, we studied the effect of PLK1 and PARP inhibitors either single or combined treatments in two BRCA mutated, and one BRCA proficient TNBC cell lines. We showed that combined inhibition significantly reduced cell survival and persuaded apoptosis in TNBC cell lines. Moreover, our findings indicate that inhibition of PLK1 can reinstate sensitivity in PARP inhibitor (PARPi) resistant TNBC cell lines.

Conclusion

Our results shed light on the role of PLK1 in the pathogenesis and prognosis of Middle Eastern BC and support the potential clinical development of combined inhibition of PLK1 and PARP, a strategy that could potentially broaden the use of PLK1 and PARP inhibitors beyond BC cases lacking BRCA.

Discovery of novel G9a/GLP covalent inhibitors for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) has become a serious threat to women's health. Research on epigenetic drugs is gradually deepening and is expected to provide new options for the treatment of TNBC. G9a/GLP has been shown to play an important role in the development of a variety of tumors, including TNBC. Most reported G9a/GLP inhibitors are reversible inhibitors, and covalent inhibitors with novel mechanisms of action are expected to offer unique advantages. In this study, we designed a series of novel G9a/GLP covalent inhibitors using a structure-based drug design strategy. Compound 7c (ZZM-1220) exhibited potent enzyme inhibitory activity and anti-TNBC proliferative activity. Our biochemical studies showed that ZZM-1220 could covalently bind to G9a/GLP and inhibit H3K9me2 in cells. It could significantly induce apoptosis of TNBC cells and block the cell cycle in the G2/M phase. It is worth noting that ZZM-1220 continuously inhibited the growth of cancer cells and the expression of H3K9me2 after washing out. These data suggested that ZZM-1220 could be used as a promising lead compound for the development of G9a/GLP covalent inhibitors for the treatment of TNBC.

Enhanced chemoimmunotherapy of breast cancer in mice by apolipoprotein A1-modified doxorubicin liposomes combined with interleukin-21

Backgroud: Breast cancer is a prevalent malignancy among women, with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) comprising approximately 15-20% of all cases, possessing high invasiveness, drug resistance and poor prognosis. Chemotherapy, the main treatment for TNBC, is limited by toxicity and drug resistance. Apolipoprotein A1 modified doxorubicin liposome (ApoA1-lip/Dox) was constructed in our previous study, with promising anti-tumour effect and improved safety been proved. However, during long-term administration, the problem of cumulative toxicity and insufficient tumour inhibition is still inevitable. Interleukin-21 is a small molecule protein secreted by T cells with various immune regulatory functions. IL-21 has significantly curative effects in numerous solid tumours, but it has the disadvantages of low response rate and short half-life. The combination of chemotherapy and immunotherapy has received increasing attention.Purpose: In this study, ApoA1 drug loading system and long-acting IL-21 are innovatively combined for tumour treatment.Methods: We combined ApoA1-lip/Dox and IL-21 for treatment and evaluated their impact on tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and CD8+ T and NK cell cytotoxicity.Results: Combined administration significantly improved the tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes and enhanced the cytotoxicity of CD8+ T and NK cells. The combination of ApoA1-lip/Dox and IL-21 exhibits significantly enhanced anti-tumour efficacy with lower toxicity of ApoA1-lip/Dox, providing a new strategy for TNBC treatment with enhanced anti-tumour response and reduced toxicity.

Immobilized doxorubicin and ribociclib carbamate linkers encaged in surface modified cubosomes spatially target tumor reductive environment to enhance antitumor efficacy

In the present investigation, we have strategically synthesized Glutathione (GSH) stimuli-sensitive analogues using carbamate linkers (CL) of DOX (DOX-CL) and RB (RB-CL) which were then anchored to gold nanoparticles (Au-DOX-CL, Au-RB-CL) using mPEG as a spacer. It was observed that carbamate linkage (CL) with four carbon spacer is critical, to position the terminal thiol group, to access the carbamate group efficiently to achieve GSH-assisted release of DOX and RB in tumor-specific environment. When assessed for GSH reductase activity in MDA-MB 231 cell lines, Au-DOX-CL and Au-RB-CL showed nearly 4.18 and 3.13 fold higher GSH reductive activity as compared to the control group respectively. To achieve spatial tumor targeting with a high payload of DOX and RB, Au-DOX-CL and Au-RB-CL were encapsulated in the cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) modified liquid crystalline cubosomes i.e. CPP-Cu(Au@CL-DR). After internalization, the prototype nanocarriers release respective drugs at a precise GSH concentration inside the tumor tissues, amplifying drug concentration to a tune of five-fold. The drug concentrations remain within the therapeutic window for 72 h with a significant reduction of RB (7.8-fold) and DOX (6-fold) concentrations in vital organs, rendering reduced toxicity and improved survival. Overall, this constitutes a promising chemotherapeutic strategy against cancer and its potential application in the offing.

AURKAIP1 actuates tumor progression through stabilizing DDX5 in triple negative breast cancer

Aurora-A kinase interacting protein 1 (AURKAIP1) has been proved to take an intermediary role in cancer by functioning as a negative regulator of Aurora-A kinase. However, it remains unclear whether and how AURKAIP1 itself would directly engage in regulating malignancies. The expression levels of AURKAIP1 were detected in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) by immunohistochemistry and western blots. The CCK8, colony formation assays and nude mouse model were conducted to determine cell proliferation whereas transwell and wound healing assays were performed to observe cell migration. The interaction of AURKAIP1 and DEAD-box helicase 5 (DDX5) were verified through co-immunoprecipitation and successively western blots. From the results, we found that AURKAIP1 was explicitly upregulated in TNBC, which was positively associated with tumor size, lymph node metastases, pathological stage and unfavorable prognosis. AURKAIP1 silencing markedly inhibited TNBC cell proliferation and migration in vitro and in vivo. AURKAIP1 directly interacted with and stabilized DDX5 protein by preventing ubiquitination and degradation, and DDX5 overexpression successfully reversed proliferation inhibition induced by knockdown of AURKAIP1. Consequently, AURKAIP1 silencing suppressed the activity of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in a DDX5-dependent manner. Our study may primarily disclose the molecular mechanism by which AURKAIP1/DDX5/β-catenin axis modulated TNBC progression, indicating that AURKAIP1 might serve as a therapeutic target as well as a TNBC-specific biomarker for prognosis.

Artificial intelligence in breast imaging: potentials and challenges

Breast cancer, which is the most common type of malignant tumor among humans, is a leading cause of death in females. Standard treatment strategies, including neoadjuvant chemotherapy, surgery, postoperative chemotherapy, targeted therapy, endocrine therapy, and radiotherapy, are tailored for individual patients. Such personalized therapies have tremendously reduced the threat of breast cancer in females. Furthermore, early imaging screening plays an important role in reducing the treatment cycle and improving breast cancer prognosis. The recent innovative revolution in artificial intelligence (AI) has aided radiologists in the early and accurate diagnosis of breast cancer. In this review, we introduce the necessity of incorporating AI into breast imaging and the applications of AI in mammography, ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography/computed tomography based on published articles since 1994. Moreover, the challenges of AI in breast imaging are discussed.

Coordinated modulation of long non-coding RNA ASBEL and curcumin co-delivery through multicomponent nanocomplexes for synchronous triple-negative breast cancer theranostics

BACKGROUND

Abnormally regulated long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) functions in cancer emphasize their potential to serve as potential targets for cancer therapeutic intervention. LncRNA ASBEL has been identified as oncogene and an anti-sense transcript of tumor-suppressor gene of BTG3 in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC).

RESULTS

Herein, multicomponent self-assembled polyelectrolyte nanocomplexes (CANPs) based on the polyelectrolytes of bioactive hyaluronic acid (HA) and chitosan hydrochloride (CS) were designed and prepared for the collaborative modulation of oncogenic lncRNA ASBEL with antago3, an oligonucleotide antagonist targeting lncRNA ASBEL and hydrophobic curcumin (Cur) co-delivery for synergetic TNBC therapy. Antago3 and Cur co-incorporated CANPs were achieved via a one-step assembling strategy with the cooperation of noncovalent electrostatic interactions, hydrogen-bonding, and hydrophobic interactions. Moreover, the multicomponent assembled CANPs were ulteriorly decorated with a near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) Cy-5.5 dye (FCANPs) for synchronous NIRF imaging and therapy monitoring performance. Resultantly, MDA-MB-231 cells proliferation, migration, and invasion were efficiently inhibited, and the highest apoptosis ratio was induced by FCANPs with coordination patterns. At the molecular level, effective regulation of lncRNA ASBEL/BTG3 and synchronous regulation of Bcl-2 and c-Met pathways could be observed.

CONCLUSION

As expected, systemic administration of FCANPs resulted in targeted and preferential accumulation of near-infrared fluorescence signal and Cur in the tumor tissue. More attractively, systemic FCANPs-mediated collaborative modulating lncRNA ASBEL/BTG3 and Cur co-delivery significantly suppressed the MDA-MB-231 xenograft tumor growth, inhibited metastasis and extended survival rate with negligible systemic toxicity. Our present study represented an effective approach to developing a promising theranostic platform for combating TNBC in a combined therapy pattern.

Androgen Receptor Expression in ER and PR Negative Breast Cancer-A Study from a Tertiary Hospital in Northern India

Sumeet SidhuObjectives  Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women. Estrogen (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) status and Her2 overexpression are major determinants in therapeutic decision making. Triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs) have limited treatment options. Androgen receptor (AR) expression opens up therapeutic avenues for these patients. The aim of this article was to study the immunohistochemical expression of ARs in ER and PR Negative breast carcinomas and to correlate AR expression with various clinical, histopathological, and other immunohistochemical parameters. Materials and Methods  It is a cross-sectional study including 105 ER and PR Negative cases of breast carcinoma. Clinical parameters, histopathology, and immunohistochemical expression of AR, Her2, and Ki67 were analyzed in all cases. Results  AR expression was observed in 63.8% of ER and PR Negative breast cancers. In this group, AR expression was strongly associated with Her2 co-expression (89.2%) as compared to TNBCs (45.8%); p -value = 0.0002. Significant correlation was also observed between AR expression and tumor necrosis ( p -value = 0.034) and postmenopausal status ( p  = 0.007). Conclusion  Our study shows that significant proportion of ER and PR Negative breast carcinomas (ER- PR- Her2+ and TNBCs) show AR expression. We strongly recommend routine evaluation of all hormone receptor-negative breast carcinomas for AR status by immunohistochemistry.

Characteristics and prognostic significance of polo-like kinase-1 (PLK1) expression in breast cancer

AIM

Polo-like kinase-1 (PLK1) plays a crucial role in cell cycle progression, and it is considered a potential therapeutic target in many cancers. Although the role of PLK1 is well established in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) as an oncogene, its role in luminal BC is still controversial. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the prognostic and predictive role of PLK1 in BC and its molecular subtypes.

METHODS

A large BC cohort (n = 1208) were immunohistochemically stained for PLK1. The association with clinicopathological, molecular subtypes, and survival data was analysed. PLK1 mRNA was evaluated in the publicly available datasets (n = 6774), including The Cancer Genome Atlas and the Kaplan-Meier Plotter tool.

RESULTS

20% of the study cohort showed high cytoplasmic PLK1 expression. High PLK1 expression was significantly associated with a better outcome in the whole cohort, luminal BC. In contrast, high PLK1 expression was associated with a poor outcome in TNBC. Multivariate analyses indicated that high PLK1 expression is independently associated with longer survival in luminal BC, and in poorer prognosis in TNBC. At the mRNA levels, PLK1 expression was associated with short survival in TNBC consistent with the protein expression. However, in luminal BC, its prognostic value significantly varies between cohorts.

CONCLUSION

The prognostic role of PLK1 in BC is molecular subtype-dependent. As PLK1 inhibitors are introduced to clinical trials for several cancer types, our study supports evaluation of the pharmacological inhibition of PLK1 as an attractive therapeutic target in TNBC. However, in luminal BC, PLK1 prognostic role remains controversial.

Exosomal circRNAs in cancer: Implications for therapy resistance and biomarkers

Despite the advances in cancer treatment in recent years, the development of resistance to cancer therapy remains the biggest hurdle towards curative cancer treatments. Therefore, investigating the molecular mechanisms underlying cancer therapy resistance is of paramount clinical importance. Circular RNAs (circRNAs), novel members of the noncoding RNA family, are endogenous biomolecules in eukaryotes characterized by a covalently closed loop structure with multiple biological functions. Significantly, circRNAs are abundant and stable in exosomes and can be packaged, secreted and transferred to targeted tumour cells, thereby modulating diverse hallmarks of cancer behaviours, such as proliferation, migration, and immune escape. Notably, a great number of exosomal circRNAs are abnormally expressed during cancer treatment and can mediate cancer therapy resistance through complex mechanisms; therefore, targeting exosomal circRNAs is a promising therapeutic method to reverse therapy resistance. This review aimed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying exosomal circRNAs controlling the resistance of cancer to common therapies, such as chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy and radiotherapy, and we also discussed the therapeutic potential of exosomal circRNAs as clinical biomarkers and novel targets in cancer clinical management. We also discussed the prospects and challenges of targeting exosomal circRNAs as a novel therapeutic strategy for reversing cancer therapy resistance.

CircEGFR reduces the sensitivity of pirarubicin and regulates the malignant progression of triple-negative breast cancer via the miR-1299/EGFR axis

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been found to be involved in cancer progression and chemotherapy sensitivity. However, the biological function of circRNAs in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and its effect on the sensitivity to pirarubicin (THP) chemotherapy are still unclear. CircEGFR (hsa_circ_0080220) was screened and verified by bioinformatics analysis, proving it was highly expressed in TNBC cell lines, patient tissues, and plasma exosomes, and was associated with poor prognosis of patients. The expression level of circEGFR in patient tissue has potential diagnostic value to distinguish TNBC tissue from normal breast tissue. In vitro studies confirmed that overexpression of circEGFR promoted the proliferation, migration, invasion, and EMT of TNBC cells and decreased the sensitivity of THP treatment while silencing circEGFR showed the opposite effect. The circEGFR/miR-1299/EGFR pathway was cascaded and verified. CircEGFR regulated malignant progression of TNBC by regulating EGFR via sponging miR-1299. THP can inhibit the malignant phenotype of MDA-MB-231 cells by downregulating the expression of circEGFR. In vivo studies confirmed that overexpression of circEGFR can promote tumor growth and EMT and reduce tumor sensitivity to THP treatment. Silencing circEGFR inhibited the malignant progression of the tumor. These results revealed circEGFR is a promising biomarker for TNBC diagnosis, therapeutic and prognosis.

Exogenous hydrogen sulfide (H2S) exerts therapeutic potential in triple-negative breast cancer by affecting cell cycle and DNA replication pathway

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly aggressive subtype with a poor prognosis due to its high rates of proliferation and metastasis. Recently, hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) has been recognized as a novel gasotransmitter that plays a significant role in various pathological processes, including cancer. Here, we show that exogenous H₂S inhibited TNBC cancer cell proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro, and also decreased cancer malignances in the mouse model of TNBC. To investigate the underlying mechanisms of H₂S's anti-cancer effects in TNBC, we performed transcriptome sequencing and bioinformatic analyses. 2121 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were revealed, and mainly enriched in cell cycle and DNA replication pathways. Further analysis revealed changes in alternative splicing after exogenous H₂S treatment. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis was performed, which identified 458 interactions among 276 DEGs enriched in cell cycle and DNA replication pathways.We identified seven hub genes (MCM3, MCM4, MCM5, MCM6, CDC6, CDC45, and GINS2) through PPI network analysis, which were up-regulated in clinical human breast cancer but down-regulated after H₂S treatment. Based on the hub genes selected, we developed a model predicting that exogenous H₂S mainly exerts its anti-TNBC role by delaying DNA replication. Our findings suggest that exogenous H₂S has potential as a therapeutic agent in TNBC and may exert its therapeutic potential through DNA replication and the cell cycle pathway.

Development of Cyclic Peptides Targeting the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor in Mesenchymal Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Subtype

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive malignancy characterized by the lack of expression of estrogen and progesterone receptors and amplification of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). Being the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) highly expressed in mesenchymal TNBC and correlated with aggressive growth behavior, it represents an ideal target for anticancer drugs. Here, we have applied the phage display for selecting two highly specific peptide ligands for targeting the EGFR overexpressed in MDA-MB-231 cells, a human TNBC cell line. Molecular docking predicted the peptide-binding affinities and sites in the extracellular domain of EGFR. The binding of the FITC-conjugated peptides to human and murine TNBC cells was validated by flow cytometry. Confocal microscopy confirmed the peptide binding specificity to EGFR-positive MDA-MB-231 tumor xenograft tissues and their co-localization with the membrane EGFR. Further, the peptide stimulation did not affect the cell cycle of TNBC cells, which is of interest for their utility for tumor targeting. Our data indicate that these novel peptides are highly specific ligands for the EGFR overexpressed in TNBC cells, and thus they could be used in conjugation with nanoparticles for tumor-targeted delivery of anticancer drugs.

Dictyostelium Differentiation-inducing Factor Derivatives Reduce the Glycosylation of PD-L1 in MDA-MB-231 Human Breast Cancer Cells

Objectives

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a metastatic and intractable cancer with limited treatment options. Refractory cancer cells often express the immune checkpoint molecules programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) and PD-L2, which inhibit the anticancer effects of T cells. Differentiation-inducing factors, originally found in Dictyostelium discoideum, and their derivatives possess strong antiproliferative activity, at least in part by reducing cyclin D1 expression in various cancer cells, but their effects on PD-L1/PD-L2 have not been examined. In this study, we investigate the effects of six DIF compounds (DIFs) on the expression of PD-L1/PD-L2 and cyclin D1/D3 in MDA-MB-231 cells, a model TNBC cell line.

Methods

MDA-MB-231 cells were incubated for 5 or 15 h with or without DIFs, and the mRNA expression of cyclin D1, PD-L1, and PD-L2 were assessed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Whereas, MDA-MD-231 cells were incubated for 12 or 24 h with or without DIFs, and the protein expression of cyclins D1 and D3, PD-L1, and PD-L2 were assessed by Western blotting.

Results

As expected, some DIFs strongly reduced cyclin D1/D3 protein expression in MDA-MB-231 cells. Contrary to our expectation, DIFs had little effect on PD-L1 mRNA expression or increased it transiently. However, some DIFs partially reduced glycosylated PD-L1 and increased non-glycosylated PD-L1 in MDA-MB-231 cells. The level of PD-L2 was very low in these cells.

Conclusions

Since PD-L1 glycosylation plays an important role in preventing T cells from attacking cancer cells, such DIFs may promote T cell attack on cancer cells in vivo.

Dynamic tumor microenvironment, molecular heterogeneity, and distinct immunologic portrait of triple-negative breast cancer: an impact on classification and treatment approaches

Heterogeneity of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and the lack of a definite targetable receptor in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) has carved a niche for this cancer as a particularly therapeutically challenging form of breast cancer. However, recent advances in high-throughput genomic analysis have provided new insights into the unique microenvironment and defining characteristics of various subsets of TNBC. This improved understanding has contributed to the development of novel therapeutic strategies including targeted therapies such as PARP inhibitors and CDK inhibitors. Moreover, the recent FDA approval of the immune checkpoint inhibitor against programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), pembrolizumab and atezolizumab, holds the promise of improving the quality of life and increasing the overall survival of TNBC patients. This recent approval is one of the many therapeutically novel strategies that are currently being exploited in clinical trials toward eventual contribution to the oncologist's toolbox against TNBC. In this review, we comprehensively discuss TNBC's distinct TME and its immunophenotype. Furthermore, we highlight the histological and molecular classification of this cancer. More importantly, we describe how these characteristics and classifications contribute to the current standards of care and how they steer the development of newer and more targeted therapies toward achieving peak therapeutic goals in the treatment of TNBC.

Newly Developed Targeted Therapies Against the Androgen Receptor in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: A Review

Among different types of breast cancers (BC), triple-negative BC (TNBC) amounts to 15% to 20% of breast malignancies. Three principal characteristics of TNBC cells are (i) extreme aggressiveness, (ii) absence of hormones, and (iii) growth factor receptors. Due to the lack or poor expression of the estrogen receptor, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, and progesterone receptor, TNBC is resistant to hormones and endocrine therapies. Consequently, chemotherapy is currently used as the primary approach against TNBC. Expression of androgen receptor (AR) in carcinoma cells has been observed in a subset of patients with TNBC; therefore, inhibiting androgen signaling pathways holds promise for TNBC targeting. The new AR inhibitors have opened up new therapy possibilities for BC patients carrying AR-positive TNBC cells. Our group provides a comprehensive review of the structure and function of the AR and clinical evidence for targeting the cell's nuclear receptor in TNBC. We updated AR agonists, inhibitors, and antagonists. We also presented a new era of genetic manipulating CRISPR/Cas9 and nanotechnology as state-of-the-art approaches against AR to promote the efficiency of targeted therapy in TNBC. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The lack of effective treatment for triple-negative breast cancer is a health challenge. The main disadvantages of existing treatments are their side effects, due to their nonspecific targeting. Molecular targeting of cellular receptors, such as androgen receptors, increased expression in malignant tissues, significantly improving the survival rate of breast cancer patients.

Transcytosable Peptide-Paclitaxel Prodrug Nanoparticle for Targeted Treatment of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an extremely aggressive subtype associated with a poor prognosis. At present, the treatment for TNBC mainly relies on surgery and traditional chemotherapy. As a key component in the standard treatment of TNBC, paclitaxel (PTX) effectively inhibits the growth and proliferation of tumor cells. However, the application of PTX in clinical treatment is limited due to its inherent hydrophobicity, weak penetrability, nonspecific accumulation, and side effects. To counter these problems, we constructed a novel PTX conjugate based on the peptide-drug conjugates (PDCs) strategy. In this PTX conjugate, a novel fused peptide TAR consisting of a tumor-targeting peptide, A7R, and a cell-penetrating peptide, TAT, is used to modify PTX. After modification, this conjugate is named PTX-SM-TAR, which is expected to improve the specificity and penetrability of PTX at the tumor site. Depending on hydrophilic TAR peptide and hydrophobic PTX, PTX-SM-TAR can self-assemble into nanoparticles and improve the water solubility of PTX. In terms of linkage, the acid- and esterase-sensitive ester bond was used as the linking bond, with which PTX-SM-TAR NPs could remain stable in the physiological environment, whereas PTX-SM-TAR NPs could be broken and PTX be released at the tumor site. A cell uptake assay showed that PTX-SM-TAR NPs were receptor-targeting and could mediate endocytosis by binding to NRP-1. The vascular barrier, transcellular migration, and tumor spheroids experiments showed that PTX-SM-TAR NPs exhibit great transvascular transport and tumor penetration ability. In vivo experiments, PTX-SM-TAR NPs showed higher antitumor effects than PTX. As a result, PTX-SM-TAR NPs may overcome the shortcomings of PTX and present a new transcytosable and targeted delivery system for PTX in TNBC treatment.

Elevated STIL predicts poor prognosis in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma

Overexpression of SCL/TAL1 interrupting locus (STIL) has been observed in various cancer types. However, the clinical significance of STIL in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unknown. Cox regression and Kaplan-Meier survival analyses were performed to evaluate the prognostic value of STIL. Go and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses were also carried out. Immune infiltrates analyses were conducted based on TIMER (Tumor Immune Estimation Resource) and GAPIA databases. STIL expression was highly expressed in HCC tissues, based on multiple databases. KEGG and GO enrichment analysis showed STIL-related to tumorigenesis and progress. Furthermore, STIL was significantly correlated with immune infiltration. STIL serves as a biomarker for the prediction of patient survival.

Pseudo-temporal dynamics of chemoresistant triple negative breast cancer cells reveal EGFR/HER2 inhibition as synthetic lethal during mid-neoadjuvant chemotherapy

In the absence of targetable hormonal axes, chemoresistance for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) often compromises patient outcomes. To investigate the underlying tumor dynamics, we performed trajectory analysis on the single-nuclei RNA-seq (snRNA-seq) of chemoresistant tumor clones during neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC). It revealed a common tumor trajectory across multiple patients with HER2-like expansions during NAC. Genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 knock-out on mammary epithelial cells revealed chemosensitivity-promoting knock-outs were up-regulated along the tumor trajectory. Furthermore, we derived a consensus gene signature of TNBC chemoresistance by comparing the trajectory transcriptome with chemoresistant transcriptomes from TNBC cell lines and poor prognosis patient samples to predict FDA-approved drugs, including afatinib (pan-HER inhibitor), targeting the consensus signature. We validated the synergistic efficacy of afatinib and paclitaxel in chemoresistant TNBC cells and confirmed pharmacological suppression of the consensus signature. The study provides a dynamic model of chemoresistant tumor transcriptome, and computational framework for pharmacological intervention.

Correlation between the Warburg effect and progression of triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is ineligible for hormonal therapy and Her-2-targeted therapy due to the negative expression of the estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and human epidermal growth factor receptor-2. Although targeted therapy and immunotherapy have been shown to attenuate the aggressiveness of TNBC partially, few patients have benefited from them. The conventional treatment for TNBC remains chemotherapy. Chemoresistance, however, impedes therapeutic progress over time, and chemotherapy toxicity increases the burden of cancer on patients. Therefore, introducing more advantageous TNBC treatment options is a necessity. Metabolic reprogramming centered on glucose metabolism is considered a hallmark of tumors. It is described as tumor cells tend to convert glucose to lactate even under normoxic conditions, a phenomenon known as the Warburg effect. Similar to Darwinian evolution, its emergence is attributed to the selective pressures formed by the hypoxic microenvironment of pre-malignant lesions. Of note, the Warburg effect does not disappear with changes in the microenvironment after the formation of malignant tumor phenotypes. Instead, it forms a constitutive expression mediated by mutations or epigenetic modifications, providing a robust selective survival advantage for primary and metastatic lesions. Expanding evidence has demonstrated that the Warburg effect mediates multiple invasive behaviors in TNBC, including proliferation, metastasis, recurrence, immune escape, and multidrug resistance. Moreover, the Warburg effect-targeted therapy has been testified to be feasible in inhibiting TNBC progression. However, not all TNBCs are sensitive to glycolysis inhibitors because TNBC cells flexibly switch their metabolic patterns to cope with different survival pressures, namely metabolic plasticity. Between the Warburg effect-targeted medicines and the actual curative effect, metabolic plasticity creates a divide that must be continuously researched and bridged.

Cytotoxic evaluation of YSL-109 in a triple negative breast cancer cell line and toxicological evaluations

Breast cancer (BC) is the leading cause of cancer-related death in women worldwide. Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive form of BC being with the worst prognosis and the worst survival rates. There is no specific pharmacological target for the treatment of TNBC; conventional therapy includes the use of non-specific chemotherapy that generally has a poor prognosis. Therefore, the search of effective therapies against to TNBC continues at both preclinical and clinical level. In this sense, the exploration of different pharmacological targets is a continue task that pave the way to epigenetic modulation using novel small molecules. Lately, the inhibition of histone deacetylases (HDACs) has been explored to treat different BC, including TNBC. HDACs remove the acetyl groups from the ɛ-amino lysine resides on histone and non-histone proteins. In particular, the inhibition of HDAC6 has been suggested to be useful for the treatment of TNBC due to it is overexpressed in TNBC. Therefore, in this work, an HDAC6 selective inhibitor, the (S)-4-butyl-N-(1-(hydroxyamino)-3-(naphthalen-1-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl) benzamide (YSL-109), was assayed on TNBC cell line (MDA-MB231) showing an antiproliferative activity (IC₅₀ = 50.34 ± 1.11 µM), whereas on fibroblast, it was lesser toxic. After corroborating the in vitro antiproliferative activity of YSL-109 in TNBC, the toxicological profile was explored using combined approach with in silico tools and experimental assays. YSL-109 shows moderate mutagenic activity on TA-98 strain at 30 and 100 µM in the Ames test, whereas YSL-109 did not show in vivo genotoxicity and its oral acute toxicity (LD₅₀) in CD-1 female mice was higher than 2000 mg/kg, which is in agreement with our in silico predictions. According to these results, YSL-109 represents an interesting compound to be explored for the treatment of TNBC under preclinical in vivo models.