Long-term methylglyoxal treatment impairs smooth muscle contractility in organ-cultured rat mesenteric artery

Phloroglucinol ameliorated methylglyoxal induced harmful effects in rats

Glycation is among the underlying mechanisms attributed to ageing and associated morbidities. There is no drug available to combat this deleterious phenomenon. The present study aimed to explore phloroglucinol (PHL) for its anti-glycation potential at preclinical level. The rats were treated with methylglyoxal (MGO, 17.25 mg/kg, i.p. for 14 days) to induce glvcative stress. The treatment groups received additional administration of test drug (PHL; 0.25mg/kg, 0.5mg/kg, and 1mg/kg) or standard aminoguanidine (AG, 50 mg/kg) or saline (control, 5ml/kg). During 14 days, the weight and food intake was noted. Afterwards, the cognitive function was evaluated using Morris Water Maze (MWM) while hepatic and renal functions were assessed through liver function test (bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, SGPT, and SGOT) and creatinine respectively, using chemical analyzer. The carboxymethyllysine (CML) levels were quantified in the blood using ELISA technique. Histopathological study was performed on the brain, liver, and kidney using H&E staining. Additionally, the qPCR was used to quantify the expression of TNF-α, RAGE and BACE-1 (brain), RAGE, TNF-α, and glyoxalase-I (liver) and RAGE, TNF-α, and VEGF (kidney), while glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was used as a reference housekeeping gene. The data regarding weight and food intake did not reveal significant alterations. In MWM, the MGO treatment caused significant increase in the time to reach target quadrant, while decrease in the time spent in target quadrant and number of crossings through platform position. All these effects were inhibited by both AG and PHL. The navigation maps also exhibit that the retention of spatial memory. Additionally, the MGO-induced alteration in hepatic and renal function indicators was ameliorated by both AG and PHL treatments. The plasma CML levels were found to be elevated following MGO treatment, while the concomitant administration of AG and PHL has resisted this raise. Histopathological assessment revealed no specific pathology in liver kidney and brain tissues. The qPCR data revealed enhanced expression of all genes, especially TNF-α and BACE, which were found to be reduced following both AG and PHL treatments. PHL prevented the brain, hepatic, and renal impairments caused by MGO induced glycative stress. Hence, the PHL, a clinically used anti-spasmodic drug, presents itself as a potential candidate to be repurposed as anti-glycation drug.

Placental Methylglyoxal in Preeclampsia: Vascular and Biomarker Implications

BACKGROUND

Preeclampsia is a multifaceted syndrome that includes maternal vascular dysfunction. We hypothesize that increased placental glycolysis and hypoxia in preeclampsia lead to increased levels of methylglyoxal (MGO), consequently causing vascular dysfunction.

METHODS

Plasma samples and placentas were collected from uncomplicated and preeclampsia pregnancies. Uncomplicated placentas and trophoblast cells (BeWo) were exposed to hypoxia. The reactive dicarbonyl MGO and advanced glycation end products (Nε-(carboxymethyl)lysine [CML], Nε-(carboxyethyl)lysine [CEL], and MGO-derived hydroimidazolone [MG-H]) were quantified using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The activity of GLO1 (glyoxalase-1), that is, the enzyme detoxifying MGO, was measured. The impact of MGO on vascular function was evaluated using wire/pressure myography. The therapeutic potential of the MGO-quencher quercetin and mitochondrial-specific antioxidant mitoquinone mesylate (MitoQ) was explored.

RESULTS

MGO, CML, CEL, and MG-H2 levels were elevated in preeclampsia-placentas (+36%, +36%, +25%, and +22%, respectively). Reduced GLO1 activity was observed in preeclampsia-placentas (-12%) and hypoxia-exposed placentas (-16%). Hypoxia-induced MGO accumulation in placentas was mitigated by the MGO-quencher quercetin. Trophoblast cells were identified as the primary source of MGO. Reduced GLO1 activity was also observed in hypoxia-exposed BeWo cells (-26%). Maternal plasma concentrations of CML and the MGO-derived MG-H1 increased as early as 12 weeks of gestation (+16% and +17%, respectively). MGO impaired endothelial barrier function, an effect mitigated by MitoQ, and heightened vascular responsiveness to thromboxane A2.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals the accumulation of placental MGO in preeclampsia and upon exposure to hypoxia, demonstrates how MGO can contribute to vascular impairment, and highlights plasma CML and MG-H1 levels as promising early biomarkers for preeclampsia.

Preventive Effect of Canstatin against Ventricular Arrhythmia Induced by Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury: A Pilot Study

Ventricular arrhythmia induced by ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is a clinical problem in reperfusion therapies for acute myocardial infarction. Ca2+ overload through reactive oxygen species (ROS) production is a major cause for I/R-induced arrhythmia. We previously demonstrated that canstatin, a C-terminal fragment of type IV collagen α2 chain, regulated Ca2+ handling in rat heart. In this study, we aimed to clarify the effects of canstatin on I/R-induced ventricular arrhythmia in rats. Male Wistar rats were subjected to I/R injury by ligating the left anterior descending artery followed by reperfusion. Ventricular arrhythmia (ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation) was recorded by electrocardiogram. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX) activity and ROS production in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCMs) stimulated with oxygen glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) were measured by lucigenin assay and 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate staining, respectively. The H2O2-induced intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) rise in NRCMs was measured by a fluorescent Ca2+ indicator. Canstatin (20 µg/kg) inhibited I/R-induced ventricular arrhythmia in rats. Canstatin (250 ng/mL) inhibited OGD/R-induced NOX activation and ROS production and suppressed the H2O2-induced [Ca2+]i rise in NRCMs. We for the first time demonstrated that canstatin exerts a preventive effect against I/R-induced ventricular arrhythmia, perhaps in part through the suppression of ROS production and the subsequent [Ca2+]i rise.

Amplification of the COX/TXS/TP receptor pathway enhances uridine diphosphate-induced contraction by advanced glycation end products in rat carotid arteries

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) play a pivotal role in vascular functions under various pathophysiological conditions. Although uridine diphosphate (UDP) is an important extracellular nucleotide, the relationship between AGEs and UDP regarding their effect on vascular functions remains unclear. Therefore, we investigated the effects of AGE-bovine serum albumin (AGE-BSA) on UDP-mediated responses in rat thoracic aorta and carotid arteries. In rat thoracic aorta, UDP-induced relaxation was observed and this relaxation was similar between control (1.0 v/v% PBS) and AGE-BSA-treated (0.1 mg/mL for 60 min) groups. In contrast, contraction but not relaxation was obtained following UDP application to carotid arteries with and without endothelia; contraction was greater in the AGE-BSA-treated group than in the control group. The difference in UDP-induced contraction between the two groups was not abolished by the use of a nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor, whereas it was abolished by the use of cyclooxygenase (COX), thromboxane synthase (TXS), and thromboxane-prostanoid (TP) receptor antagonist. Further, the difference in UDP-induced contraction was not abolished by the use of a cPLA₂ inhibitor, whereas it was abolished by the use of an iPLA₂ inhibitor. UDP increased TXA₂ release in both groups, and its level was similar in both groups. Moreover, the release of PGE₂, PGF_2α, and PGI₂ was similar among the groups. Under NOS inhibition, TP receptor agonist-induced contraction increased in the AGE-BSA-treated group (vs. control group). In conclusion, the increase in UDP-induced carotid arterial contraction by AGE-BSA can be attributed to an increase in the COX/TXS/TP receptor pathway, particularly, TP receptor signaling.

Enhanced calcium entry via activation of NOX/PKC underlies increased vasoconstriction induced by methylglyoxal

Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) play a pivotal role in macro- and micro-vascular diabetic complications. We investigated the mechanism by which methylglyoxal (an endogenous generator of AGEs) affects vascular contractility using the isolated artery technique. Contractile responses to vasoconstrictors phenylephrine (PE), angiotensin II (Ang II), vasopressin (VP) and KCl were measured in the isolated rat aorta following one-our exposure to methylglyoxal (50-200 μM). The perfused rat kidney was employed to confirm the effect of methylglyoxal on microvessels. Methylglyoxal-induced changes in cytosolic calcium were measured in the smooth muscle layer of the aorta with the calcium-sensing fluorophore Fluo-4 AM. Methylglyoxal significantly increased maximal contraction of the rat aorta to PE, Ang II and VP. Similar results were seen in response to the depolarizing vasoconstrictor KCl in macro and micro vessels. The methylglyoxal-induced increases in aortic contraction mediated by the agonist and KCl were endothelium independent. Methylglyoxal-induced increases in KCl-dependent aortic contraction were abolished after the removal of extracellular calcium or in the presence of the calcium channel blocker nifedipine. Incubation with the antioxidant N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC), apocynin (a nonselective NADPH oxidase (NOX) inhibitor) or chelerythrine (a protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor) prior to methylglyoxal pre-treatment reversed the methylglyoxal-induced increases in the rat aortic contractility. In conclusion, the formation of AGEs increases vasoconstriction of both macro- and micro-vessels by increasing the voltage-activated calcium entry in vascular smooth muscles in a NOX and PKC dependent manner.

Methylglyoxal in Metabolic Disorders: Facts, Myths, and Promises

Glucose and fructose metabolism originates the highly reactive byproduct methylglyoxal (MG), which is a strong precursor of advanced glycation end products (AGE). The MG has been implicated in classical diabetic complications such as retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy, but has also been recently associated with cardiovascular diseases and central nervous system disorders such as cerebrovascular diseases and dementia. Recent studies even suggested its involvement in insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction, contributing to the early development of type 2 diabetes and creating a vicious circle between glycation and hyperglycemia. Despite several drugs and natural compounds have been identified in the last years in order to scavenge MG and inhibit AGE formation, we are still far from having an effective strategy to prevent MG-induced mechanisms. This review summarizes the endogenous and exogenous sources of MG, also addressing the current controversy about the importance of exogenous MG sources. The mechanisms by which MG changes cell behavior and its involvement in type 2 diabetes development and complications and the pathophysiological implication are also summarized. Particular emphasis will be given to pathophysiological relevance of studies using higher MG doses, which may have produced biased results. Finally, we also overview the current knowledge about detoxification strategies, including modulation of endogenous enzymatic systems and exogenous compounds able to inhibit MG effects on biological systems.

Effects of d- and l-limonene on the pregnant rat myometrium in vitro

Aim

To study the effects of d- and l-limonene on pregnant rat myometrial contractility in vitro, and investigate how these effects are modified by other agents. D- and l-limonene (10⁻¹³-10⁻⁸ M) caused myometrial contraction in a dose-dependent manner.

Methods

Contractions of uterine rings from 22-day-pregnant rats were measured in an organ bath in the presence of d- or l-limonene (10⁻¹³-10⁻⁸ M) and nifedipine (10⁻⁸ M), tetraethyl-ammonium (10⁻³ M), theophylline (10⁻⁵ M), or paxilline (10⁻⁵ M). Uterine cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) level was detected by enzyme immunoassay. Oxidative damage was induced by methylglyoxal (3 × 10⁻² M) and the alteration was measured via noradrenaline (1 × 10⁻⁹ to 3 × 10⁻⁵ M) -induced contractions.

Results

Pre-treatment with nifedipine (10⁻⁸ M), tetraethylammonium (10⁻³ M), and theophylline (10⁻⁵ M) attenuated the contracting effect of d- and l-limonene, while in the presence of paxilline (10⁻⁵ M) d- and l-limonene were ineffective. The two enantiomers decreased the myometrial cAMP level, but after paxilline pretreatment the cAMP level was not altered compared with the control value. Additionally, l-limonene (10⁻⁶ M) diminished consequences of oxidative damage caused by methylglyoxal (3 × 10⁻² M) on contractility, whereas d-limonene was ineffective.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that l-limonene has an antioxidant effect and that both d-and l-limonene cause myometrial contraction through activation of the A_2A receptor and opening of the voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channel. It is possible that limonene-containing products increase the pregnant uterus contractility and their use should be avoided during pregnancy.

Vaspin prevents methylglyoxal-induced apoptosis in human vascular endothelial cells by inhibiting reactive oxygen species generation

AIM

Vaspin (visceral adipose tissue-derived serine protease inhibitor) is a novel adipocytokine found in visceral white adipose tissues of obese type 2 diabetic rats. We have previously shown that vaspin has anti-inflammatory and antimigratory effects in vascular smooth muscle cells. Methylglyoxal (MGO) is an active metabolite of glucose and mediates diabetic vascular complications including endothelial cell (EC) apoptosis. Nonetheless, effects of vaspin on MGO-induced apoptosis of vascular EC remain to be determined. We investigated the effects of vaspin on MGO-induced apoptosis of human umbilical vein ECs (HUVECs).

METHODS

Human umbilical vein ECs were treated with MGO (560 μm, 12 h) in the absence or presence of vaspin (1 ng mL(-1), pre-treatment for 2 h). Cell death was evaluated by a cell counting assay. Apoptosis was determined by a terminal deoxyribonucleotide transferase-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labelling (TUNEL) assay. Cleaved caspase-3 expression was determined by Western blotting. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation was fluorometrically measured using 2', 7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate. NADPH oxidase (NOX) activity was determined by a lucigenin assay.

RESULTS

Vaspin significantly inhibited MGO-induced HUVEC death. Vaspin significantly attenuated MGO-increased TUNEL-positive ECs. Moreover, vaspin significantly inhibited MGO-induced caspase-3 cleavage. Vaspin significantly inhibited MGO-induced ROS generation as well as NOX activation.

CONCLUSIONS

The present results for the first time demonstrate that vaspin inhibits MGO-induced EC apoptosis by preventing caspase-3 activation via the inhibition of NOX-derived ROS generation.

Methylglyoxal, obesity, and diabetes

Methylglyoxal (MG) is a highly reactive compound derived mainly from glucose and fructose metabolism. This metabolite has been implicated in diabetic complications as it is a strong AGE precursor. Furthermore, recent studies suggested a role for MG in insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction. Although several drugs have been developed in the recent years to scavenge MG and inhibit AGE formation, we are still far from having an effective strategy to prevent MG-induced mechanisms. This review summarizes the mechanisms of MG formation, detoxification, and action. Furthermore, we review the current knowledge about its implication on the pathophysiology and complications of obesity and diabetes.

Prolonged exposure to methylglyoxal causes disruption of vascular KATP channel by mRNA instability

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by hyperglycemia and excessive production of intermediary metabolites including methylglyoxal (MGO), a reactive carbonyl species that can lead to cell injuries. Interacting with proteins, lipids, and DNA, excessive MGO can cause dysfunction of various tissues, especially the vascular walls where diabetic complications often take place. However, the potential vascular targets of excessive MGO remain to be fully understood. Here we show that the vascular Kir6.1/SUR2B isoform of ATP-sensitive K(+) (K(ATP)) channels is likely to be disrupted with an exposure to submillimolar MGO. Up to 90% of the Kir6.1/SUR2B currents were suppressed by 1 mM MGO with a time constant of ∼2 h. Consistently, MGO treatment caused a vast reduction of both Kir6.1 and SUR2B mRNAs endogenously expressed in the A10 vascular smooth muscle cells. In the presence of the transcriptional inhibitor actinomycin-D, MGO remained to lower the Kir6.1 and SUR2B mRNAs to the same degree as MGO alone, suggesting that the MGO effect is likely to compromise the mRNA stability. Luciferase reporter assays indicated that the 3'-untranslated regions (UTRs) of the Kir6.1 but not SUR2 mRNA were targeted by MGO. In contrast, the SUR2B mRNAs obtained with in vitro transcription were disrupted by MGO directly, while the Kir6.1 transcripts were unaffected. Consistent with these results, the constriction of mesenteric arterial rings was markedly augmented with an exposure to 1 mM MGO for 2 h, and such an MGO effect was totally eliminated in the presence of glibenclamide. These results therefore suggest that acting on the 3'-UTR of Kir6.1 and the coding region of SUR2B, MGO causes instability of Kir6.1 and SUR2B mRNAs, disruption of vascular K(ATP) channels, and impairment of arterial function.

Methylglyoxal accumulation in arterial walls causes vascular contractile dysfunction in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Methylglyoxal (MGO) is a metabolite of glucose and perhaps mediates diabetes-related macrovascular complications including hypertension. In the present study, we examined if MGO accumulation affects vascular reactivity of isolated mesenteric artery from spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Five-week-old SHR were treated with an MGO scavenger, aminoguanidine (AG), for 5 weeks. AG partially normalized increased blood pressure in SHR. In mesenteric artery from SHR treated with AG, increased accumulation of MGO-derived advanced glycation end-products was reversed. In mesenteric artery from SHR, AG normalized impaired acetylcholine (ACh)-induced relaxation and increased angiotensin (Ang) II-induced contraction. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production increased in SHR mesenteric artery, and acute treatment with a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (NOX) inhibitor augmented ACh-induced relaxation. Protein expression of NOX1 and Ang II type 2 receptor (AT2R) increased in SHR mesenteric artery, which was normalized by AG. Acute treatment with an AT2R blocker but not a NOX inhibitor normalized the increased Ang II-induced contraction in SHR mesenteric artery. The present results demonstrate that MGO accumulation in mesenteric artery may mediate development of hypertension in SHR at least in part via increased ROS-mediated impairment of endothelium-dependent relaxation and AT2R-mediated increased Ang II contraction.

Methylglyoxal promotes oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction

Modern diets can cause modern diseases. Research has linked a metabolite of sugar, methylglyoxal (MG), to the development of diabetic complications, but the exact mechanism has not been fully elucidated. The present study was designed to investigate whether MG could directly influence endothelial function, oxidative stress and inflammation in Wistar and Goto-Kakizaki (GK) rats, an animal model of type 2 diabetes. Wistar and GK rats treated with MG in the drinking water for 3 months were compared with the respective control rats. The effects of MG were investigated on NO-dependent vasorelaxation in isolated rat aortic arteries from the different groups. Insulin resistance, NO bioavailability, glycation, a pro-inflammatory biomarker monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and vascular oxidative stress were also evaluated. Methylglyoxal treated Wistar rats significantly reduced the efficacy of NO-dependent vasorelaxation (p<0.001). This impairment was accompanied by a three fold increase in the oxidative stress marker nitrotyrosine. Advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) formation was significantly increased as well as MCP-1 and the expression of the receptor for AGEs (RAGE). NO bioavailability was significantly attenuated and accompanied by an increase in superoxide anion immunofluorescence. Methylglyoxal treated GK rats significantly aggravated endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, AGEs accumulation and diminished NO bioavailability when compared with control GK rats. These results indicate that methylglyoxal induced endothelial dysfunction in normal Wistar rats and aggravated the endothelial dysfunction present in GK rats. The mechanism is at least in part by increasing oxidative stress and/or AGEs formation with a concomitant increment of inflammation and a decrement in NO bioavailability. The present study provides further evidence for methylglyoxal as one of the causative factors in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and development of macrovascular diabetic complication.

Exploring mechanisms of diabetes-related macrovascular complications: role of methylglyoxal, a metabolite of glucose on regulation of vascular contractility

Methylglyoxal (MGO) is a metabolite of glucose. MGO binds to and modifies arginine, lysine, and cysteine residues in proteins, which leads to formation of a variety of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) such as argpyrimidine and N(ε)-(carboxyethyl)lysine. The concentration of MGO significantly increases in plasma from diabetic patients. Increased plasma MGO level seems to be associated with diabetic microvascular complications. In addition, MGO accumulates in large vascular tissues from spontaneous hypertensive rats, which is associated with increased blood pressure. Although it is logical to hypothesize that MGO could directly affect vascular reactivity, available reports are very limited. Our group has examined effects of MGO on vascular reactivity (contraction and relaxation) and explored underlying mechanisms. In this review article, we summarized our recent findings on 1) short-term effects of MGO, 2) long-term effects of MGO, and 3) effects of MGO accumulation in arterial walls on vascular reactivity. These findings may provide further mechanistic insights into the pathogenesis of diabetes-related macrovascular complications including hypertension.