Anthraquinones in the aqueous extract of Cassiae semen cause liver injury in rats through lipid metabolism disorder

Simultaneous high-performance liquid chromatography analysis of anthraquinones in sicklepod sprouts with α-glucosidase inhibitory activity

INTRODUCTION

Sicklepod [Cassia obtusifolia L. syn Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby, Fabaceae] sprouts are promising ingredients with health-promoting benefits. Notwithstanding, the pharmacologically active compounds in sicklepod sprouts have not been studied or analysed in detail.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to isolate and structurally identify phytochemicals showing α-glucosidase inhibitory activity in sicklepod sprouts and simultaneously quantify the compounds in the sprouts to determine the optimal cultivation method and germination time to maximise active compounds.

METHOD

A simultaneous high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet (HPLC-UV) method with high sensitivity and accuracy was developed and used to analyse time-dependent changes in anthraquinone content during sicklepod germination.

RESULTS

Thirteen anthraquinones were isolated and identified, of which six-chrysoobtusin, emodin, 1-O-methyl-2-methoxychrysophanol, 7-O-methylobtusin, chrysophanol, and physcion-showed moderate α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. The maximum content of anthraquinones in a sprout was observed on Day 5 under both light and dark conditions.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study revealed that sicklepod sprouts which are promising functional food materials contain a variety of anthraquinones.

Korean red ginseng formula attenuates non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in oleic acid-induced HepG2 cells and high-fat diet-induced rats

Objective

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the leading chronic liver disease. We have developed a Korean Red Ginseng Formula (KRGF) containing extracts of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG), Crataegus Fructus, and Cassiae Semen. In this study, our aims were to investigate the therapeutic potential and underpinning mechanisms of KRGF in NAFLD complicated by hyperlipidemia.

Methods

In the in vitro assays, HepG2 cells were treated with KRGF for 24 h in the presence or absence of oleic acid (OA). To assess the in vivo protective effect of KRGF against NAFLD, rats fed a high-fat diet (HFD) were given intragastric administration for 30 days.

Results

KRGF exerted protective effects against NAFLD by reducing lipid accumulation and steatosis in OA-stimulated HepG2 cells and HFD-fed rats. In HFD-fed rats, KRGF effectively decreased triglyceride levels in both blood and liver tissue and modulated the expression of key regulators of lipogenesis and fatty acid oxidation. KRGF downregulated the expression of lipogenesis factors, namely C/EBPα, FAS, SREBP-1c, and PPARγ, while upregulating the expression of PPARα and CPT-1, thus promoting fatty acid oxidation. Additionally, KRGF intensified the phosphorylation of AMPK and ACC, which are two enzymes that suppress fatty acid synthesis and promote fatty acid oxidation. KRGF effectively decreased total cholesterol (TC) levels in both blood and liver tissue, and it modulated the expression of major enzymes related to TC metabolism, namely apoB, ACAT2, CYP7A1, and HMGCR.

Conclusion

In conclusion, KRGF mitigated NAFLD complicated by hyperlipidemia by modulating triglyceride and cholesterol metabolism, suggesting its potential for future development in the treatment of NAFLD.

Anthraquinone Removal from Cassia obtusifolia Seed Water Extract Using Baking, Stir-Frying, and Adsorption Treatments: Effects on the Chemical Composition, Physicochemical Properties of Polysaccharides, and Antioxidant Activities of the Water Extract

Safety issues of the controversial anthraquinones from Cassia obtusifolia seed water extracts (CWEs) limit its application. This work aimed to remove the anthraquinones of CWEs by baking treatment (BT), stir-frying treatment (ST), and adsorption treatment (AT). Effects of these treatments on the chemical composition, physicochemical properties of polysaccharides, and antioxidant activities of CWEs were analyzed and compared. Results indicated that AT exhibited the best removal effect on the total anthraquinone among the three treatments. After AT, the contents of rhein, emodin, aloe-emodin, and aurantio-obtusin of the CWE were below the limit of detection. In addition, AT increased the contents of neutral sugars in CWEs in comparison to BT and ST. None of the treatments had an obvious influence on the structural characteristics of polysaccharides. However, AT decreased the antioxidant activity of CWEs due to their lower anthraquinone content. In summary, AT was considered as an efficient and simple method to remove anthraquinones, while retaining the features of polysaccharides.

A comprehensive review of emodin in fibrosis treatment

Emodin is the main pharmacodynamic components of rhubarb, with significant pharmacological effects and clinical efficacy.Emodin has a variety of therapy effects, such as anti-cancer, anti-fibrosis effects, and is widely used to treat encephalitis, diabetic cataract and organ fibrosis. Several studies have shown that emodin has a good treatment effect on organ fibrosis, but the mechanism is complex. Moreover, the evidence of some studies is conflicting and confusing. This paper reviewed the mechanism, pharmacokinetics and toxicology of emodin in fibrosis treatment, and briefly discussed relevant cutting-edge new formulations to improve the efficacy, the result can provide some reference for future study.

Integrated metabolic and transcriptomic profiles reveal the germination-associated dynamic changes for the seeds of Cassia obtusifolia L

INTRODUCTION

The seeds of Cassia obtusifolia L. (Cassiae [C.] semen) have been widely used as both food and traditional Chinese medicine in China.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to analyze the metabolic mechanisms underlying C. semen germination.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Different samples of C. semen at various germination stages were collected. These samples were subjected to ¹ H-NMR and UHPLC/Q-Orbitrap-MS-based untargeted metabolomics analysis together with transcriptomics analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 50 differential metabolites (mainly amino acids and sugars) and 20 key genes involved in multiple pathways were identified in two comparisons of different groups (36 h vs 12 h and 84 h vs 36 h). The metabolite-gene network for seed germination was depicted. In the germination of C. semen, fructose and mannose metabolism was activated in the testa rupture period, indicating more energy was needed (36 h). In the embryonic axis elongation period (84 h), the pentose and glucuronate interconversions pathway and the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathway were activated, which suggested some nutrient sources (nitrogen and sugar) were in demand. Furthermore, oxygen, energy, and nutrition should be supplied throughout the whole germination process. These global views open up an integrated perspective for understanding the complex biological regulatory mechanisms during the germination process of C. semen.

Effects of bisphenol AF on growth, behavior, histology and gene expression in marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma)

Bisphenol AF (BPAF) is one of the substitutes for bisphenol A (BPA), which has endocrine-disrupting, reproductive and neurological toxicity. BPAF has frequently been detected in the aquatic environment, which has been a long-term threat to the health of aquatic organisms. In this study, female marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) were exposed to 6.7 μg/L, 73.4 μg/L, and 367.0 μg/L BPAF for 120 d. The effects of BPAF on behavior, growth, liver and ovarian histology, gene transcriptional profiles, and reproduction of marine medaka were determined. The results showed that with the increase of BPAF concentration, the swimming speed of female marine medaka showed an increasing trend and then decreasing trend. BPAF (367.0 μg/L) significantly increased body weight and condition factors in females. BPAF (73.4 μg/L and 367.0 μg/L) significantly delayed oocyte maturation. Exposure to 367.0 μg/L BPAF showed an increasing trend in the transcript levels of lipid synthesis and transport-related genes such as fatty acid synthase (fasn), sterol regulatory element binding protein (srebf), diacylglycerol acyltransferase (dgat), solute carrier family 27 member 4 (slc27a4), fatty acid-binding protein (fabp), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (pparγ) in the liver. In addition, 6.7 μg/L BPAF significantly down-regulated the expression levels of antioxidant-related genes [superoxide dismutase (sod), glutathione peroxidase (gpx), and catalase (cat)], and complement system-related genes [complement component 5 (c5), complement component 7a (c7a), mannan-binding lectin serine peptidase 1 (masp1), and tumor necrosis factor (tnf)] were significantly up-regulated in the 73.4 and 367.0 μg/L groups, which implies the effect of BPAF on the immune system in the liver. In the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis (HPG) results, the transcription levels of estrogen receptor α (erα), estrogen receptor β (erβ), androgen receptor (arα), gonadotropin-releasing hormone 2 (gnrh2), cytochrome P450 19b (cyp19b), aromatase (cyp19a), and luteinizing hormone receptor (lhr) in the brain and ovary, and vitellogenin (vtg) and choriogenin (chg) in the liver of 367.0 μg/L BPAF group showed a downward trend. In addition, exposure to 367.0 μg/L BPAF for 120 d inhibited the spawning behavior of marine medaka. Our results showed that long-term BPAF treatment influenced growth (body weight and condition factors), lipid metabolism, and ovarian maturation, and significantly altered the immune response and the transcriptional expression levels of HPG axis-related genes.

Polypharmacology-based approach for screening TCM against coinfection of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Escherichia coli

Natural products and their unique polypharmacology offer significant advantages for finding novel therapeutics particularly for the treatment of complex diseases. Meanwhile, Traditional Chinese Medicine exerts overall clinical benefits through a multi-component and multi-target approach. In this study, we used the previously established co-infection model of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Escherichia coli as a representative of complex diseases. A new combination consisting of 6 herbs were obtained by using network pharmacology combined with transcriptomic analysis to reverse screen TCMs from the Chinese medicine database, containing Isatdis Radix, Forsythia Fructus, Ginkgo Folium, Mori Cortex, Licorice, and Radix Salviae. The results of therapeutic trials showed that the Chinese herbal compounds screened by the target network played a good therapeutic effect in the case of co-infection. In summary, these data suggested a new method to validate target combinations of natural products that can be used to optimize their multiple structure-activity relationships to obtain drug-like natural product derivatives.

Discovery of potential hypoglycemic metabolites in Cassiae Semen by coupling UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS combined plant metabolomics and spectrum-effect relationship analyses

Cassiae Semen (CS) is consumed as fried tea or medicinal food in Asian areas. Its two commercial forms, namely raw and fried CS, exert different clinical applications, in which fried CS is commonly applied as a functional tea for losing weight. To prevent confusion in the use of the two forms of CS, a comprehensive strategy by combining plant metabolomics and spectrum-effect relationship analyses was developed for the fast and efficient discrimination of raw and fried CS, and further for the discovery of the potential hypoglycemic metabolites of CS to control its quality. First, the plant metabolic profiling of raw and processed samples was performed by UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS. A total of 1111 differential metabolites were found to well distinguish the raw and fried CS after analyzing by MPP software. Subsequently, α-glucosidase inhibition of raw and fried CS was investigated. As a result, fried CS demonstrated much stronger α-glucosidase inhibition activity than the raw sample. By analyzing the spectrum-effect relationship with GRA, BCA, and PLSR, 14 potential hypoglycemic-related compounds were discovered. As anticipated, they were also found as the differential metabolites of the raw and fried samples with a potential hypoglycemic effect, which might be beneficial for the quality control of CS tea. Additionally, molecular docking analysis was conducted to reveal the underlying inhibition mechanisms of the four most critical constituents, including physcion, chrysoobtusin, aurantio-obtusin, and obtusifolin. This study provides a powerful tool for the discrimination of processed samples and fast screening of the active constituents in complex natural products on a high-throughput basis.

Pharmacological effects of the Cassia Seed on atherosclerosis: A meta-analysis based on network pharmacology

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to shed light on the active ingredients and potential targets of Cassia Seed about anti-atherosclerosis based on network pharmacology.

METHODS

The active ingredients and potential targets of Cassia Seed were obtained from traditional Chinese medicine systems pharmacology database and analysis platform (TCMSP) and SwissTargetPrediction database. Then, atherosclerosis-related targets were screened via GeneCards, online mendelian inheritance in man, therapeutic target database and DrugBank database. The common targets and protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was later identified and built. Furthermore, we used the database for annotation, visualization and integrated discovery (DAVID) database server to accomplish the enrichment analysis. The compounds-targets-pathways network was ultimately constructed by Cytoscape.

RESULTS

A total of 14 active ingredients and 475 related targets were sifted from Cassia Seed. Among 574 potential atherosclerotic targets, there were 99 targets overlapped with those of Cassia Seed. Topological analysis with Cytoscape revealed that proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Src, transcription factor AP-1 (JUN), mitogen-activated protein kinase 8 (MAPK8), mitogen-activated protein kinase 14 (MAPK14) and catenin beta-1 were considered as the hub gene. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis suggested that the Cassia Seed had the potential to influence varieties of biological processes and pathways, including positive regulation of smooth muscle cell proliferation, inflammatory response, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling pathway, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling pathway and arachidonic acid (ARA) metabolism.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our findings support that anti-atherosclerosis effects of Cassia Seed are characterized by multi-component, multi-target and multi-path mechanism of action.

Zanthoxylum armatum DC. extract induces liver injury via autophagy suppression and oxidative damage by activation of mTOR/ULK1 pathway

Zanthoxylum armatum DC. (ZADC) has anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and antibacterial effects. The cytotoxicity of methanol extract of Zanthoxylum armatum DC. (MZADC) has been reported for BRL 3 A cell lines. However, whether MZADC can induce liver damage in vivo remains unclear. Therefore, it is essential to explore whether ZADC causes liver injury and, if the results confirm hepatotoxicity, to further study the potential mechanisms for the in-vitro cytotoxicity of the BRL 3 A cell lines. In vivo, different doses (0.346, 0.519, and 1.038 g/kg/day) of MZADC treatment were given by intragastric administration among male Sprague Dawley rats for 28 days. Levels of serum alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in the high dose group increased. Steatosis and focal necrosis were found in liver cells in rats in the high dose group. In vitro, BRL 3 A cells were cultivated with MZADC at different concentrations (30, 50, and 70 μg/mL) for 24 h. The cell viability, the number of autophagosomes, and the expression levels of LC3 and Beclin-1 were on a decreasing trend. Besides, proportions of p-mTOR/mTOR and p-ULK1/ULK1 increased. Meanwhile, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and the content of malondialdehyde (MDA) were on the rise while the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and the content of glutathione (GSH) was on the decline. This research suggests that MZADC may cause rats liver injury and inhibit autophagy in BRL 3 A cells by the mTOR/ULK1 pathway, and further induce intracellular oxidative damage.

An adverse outcome pathway-based approach to assess aurantio-obtusin-induced hepatotoxicity

Cassiae semen (CS), a traditional Chinese medicine, has various bioactivities in preclinical and clinical practice. Aurantio-obtusin (AO) is a major anthraquinone (AQ) ingredient derived from CS, and has drawn public concerns over its potential hepatotoxicity. We previously found that AO induces hepatic necroinflammation by activating NOD-like receptor protein 3 inflammasome signaling. However, the mechanisms contributing to AO-motivated hepatotoxicity remain unclear. Herein, we evaluated hepatotoxic effects of AO on three liver cell lines by molecular and biochemical analyses. We found that AO caused cell viability inhibition and biochemistry dysfunction in the liver cells. Furthermore, AO elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS), followed by mitochondrial dysfunction (decreases in mitochondrial membrane potential and adenosine triphosphate) and apoptosis (increased Caspase-3, Cleaved caspase-3, Cytochrome c and Bax expression, and decreased Bcl-2 expression). We also found that AO increased the lipid peroxidation (LPO) and enhanced ferroptosis by activating cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-protein kinase A (PKA)-cAMP response element-binding (CREB) pathway (increases in PKA, p-CREB, acyl-CoA synthetase long chain family member 4). Based on these results, we used an AOP framework to explore the mechanisms underlying AO's hepatotoxicity. It starts from molecular initiating event (ROS), and follows two critical toxicity pathways (i.e., mitochondrial dysfunction-mediated apoptosis and LPO-enhanced ferroptosis) over a series of key events (KEs) to the adverse outcome of hepatotoxicity. The results of an assessment confidence in the adverse outcome pathway (AOP) framework supported the evidence concordance in dose-response, temporal and incidence relationships between KEs in AO-induced hepatotoxicity. This study's findings offer a novel toxicity pathway network for AO-caused hepatotoxicity.

Promising Role of Emodin as Therapeutics to Against Viral Infections

Emodin is an anthraquinone derivative that is widely present in natural plants and has a wide spectrum of pharmacological effects, such as antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-fibrotic and anticancer and so on. Through reviewing studies on antiviral effect of emodin in the past decades, we found that emodin exhibits ability of inhibiting the infection and replication of more than 10 viruses in vitro and in vivo, including herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2), human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), coxsackievirus B (CVB), hepatitis B virus (HBV), influenza A virus (IAV), SARS-CoV, viral haemorrhagic septicaemia rhabdovirus (VHSV), enterovirus 71 (EV71), dengue virus serotype 2 (DENV-2) and Zika virus (ZIKV). Therefore, this review aims to summarize the antiviral effect of emodin, in order to provide reference and hopes to support the further investigations.

Exposure to the herbicide butachlor activates hepatic stress signals and disturbs lipid metabolism in mice

Butachlor is a systemic herbicide widely applied on wheat, rice, beans, and different other crops, and is frequently detected in groundwater, surface water, and soil. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the potential adverse health risks and the underlying mechanisms of hepatotoxicity caused by exposure to butachlor in invertebrates, other nontarget animals, and public health. For this reason, a total of 20 mice were obtained and randomly divided into two groups. The experimental mice in one group were exposed to butachlor (8 mg/kg) and the mice in control group received normal saline. The liver tissues were obtained from each mice at day 21 of the trial. Results indicated that exposure to butachlor induced hepatotoxicity in terms of swelling of hepatocyte, disorders in the arrangement of hepatic cells, increased concentrations of different serum enzymes such as alkaline phosphate (ALP) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). The results on the mechanisms of liver toxicity indicated that butachlor induced overexpression of Apaf-1, Bax, Caspase-3, Caspase-9, Cyt-c, p53, Beclin-1, ATG-5, and LC3, whereas decreases the expression of Bcl-2 and p62 suggesting abnormal processes of apoptosis and autophagy. Results on different metabolites (61 differential metabolites) revealed upregulation of PE and LysoPC, whereas downregulation of SM caused by butachlor exposure in mice led to the disruption of glycerophospholipids and lipid metabolism in the liver. The results of our experimental research indicated that butachlor induces hepatotoxic effects through disruption of lipid metabolism, abnormal mechanisms of autophagy, and apoptosis that provides new insights into the elucidation of the mechanisms of hepatotoxicity in mice induced by butachlor.

Aurantio-obtusin induces hepatotoxicity through activation of NLRP3 inflammasome signaling

Aurantio-obtusin (AO) is a major anthraquinone (AQ) compound derived from Cassiae semen (CS). Although pharmacological studies have shown that the CS extracts can serve as effective agents in preclinical and clinical practice, AQ-induced hepatotoxicity in humans has attracted widespread attention. To explore whether AO induces hepatotoxicity and its underlying mechanisms, we exposed larval zebrafish and mice to AO. We found that AO delayed yolk sac absorption, and increased liver area and inflammation in the larval zebrafish. This inflammation was manifested as an increase in liver neutrophils and the up-regulated mRNA expression of interleukin-6 (Il-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (Tnf-α) in the larval zebrafish. Furthermore, a pharmacokinetics study showed that AO was quickly absorbed into the blood and rapidly metabolized in the mice. Of note, AO induced hepatotoxicity in a gender-dependent manner, characterized by liver dysfunction, increased hepatocyte necrosis with inflammatory infiltration, and up-regulated mRNAs of Il-6, Tnf-α and monocyte chemotactic protein 1(Mcp1) in the female mice after 28-day oral administration. It also highlighted that AO triggered NOD-like receptor protein (NLRP) signaling in the female mice, as evidenced by the increased NLRP3, Caspase-1, pro-IL-1β, IL-1β and IL-18. Finally, we found that AO led to a significant increase in potassium calcium-activated channel, subfamily N, member 4 (KCNN4) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, along with decreased nuclear factor kappa B p65 (NF-κB p65), in the female mouse livers. In conclusion, AO induced hepatotoxicity by activating NLRP3 inflammasome signaling, at least in part, through increased KCNN4 and ROS production, and NF-κB inhibition.

Hydrophobicity-switchable deep eutectic solvent-based effervescence-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction with solidification of floating droplets for HPLC determination of anthraquinones in fried Cassiae semen tea infusions

In this paper, a hydrophobicity-switchable deep eutectic solvent was evaluated for the first time as an efficient extractant in the effervescence-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction method combined with the solidification of floating droplets for HPLC determination of anthraquinones in fried Cassiae semen tea infusions. Prepared from choline chloride and octanoic acid, the deep eutectic solvent could be switched between hydrophobic and hydrophilic forms by pH adjustment. The dispersion of the extractant was assisted by in situ CO₂ produced from the effervescence reaction between H₂SO₄ and Na₂CO₃ without using any organic solvent or auxiliary equipment. Owing to the low melting/freezing point and low density compared with water, the extractant was solidified in an ice bath for the convenience of complete separation with the sample matrix. Some important parameters, such as species, molar ratio and volume of deep eutectic solvent, species and volume of effervescent agents were optimized to achieve the best extraction efficiency. Under the optimal conditions, extraction recoveries were obtained for four anthraquinones in the range of 91.1% to 111.9%. Relative standard deviations for intraday and interday precision were less than 3.3% and 4.0%, respectively. Greenness assessment demonstrated that the proposed method was greener than other reported methods for the determination of anthraquinones.

Advances in the study of emodin: an update on pharmacological properties and mechanistic basis

Rhei Radix et Rhizoma, also known as rhubarb or Da Huang, has been widely used as a spice and as traditional herbal medicine for centuries, and is currently marketed in China as the principal herbs in various prescriptions, such as Da-Huang-Zhe-Chong pills and Da-Huang-Qing-Wei pills. Emodin, a major bioactive anthraquinone derivative extracted from rhubarb, represents multiple health benefits in the treatment of a host of diseases, such as immune-inflammatory abnormality, tumor progression, bacterial or viral infections, and metabolic syndrome. Emerging evidence has made great strides in clarifying the multi-targeting therapeutic mechanisms underlying the efficacious therapeutic potential of emodin, including anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-fibrosis, anti-tumor, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, and anti-diabetic properties. This comprehensive review aims to provide an updated summary of recent developments on these pharmacological efficacies and molecular mechanisms of emodin, with a focus on the underlying molecular targets and signaling networks. We also reviewed recent attempts to improve the pharmacokinetic properties and biological activities of emodin by structural modification and novel material-based targeted delivery. In conclusion, emodin still has great potential to become promising therapeutic options to immune and inflammation abnormality, organ fibrosis, common malignancy, pathogenic bacteria or virus infections, and endocrine disease or disorder. Scientifically addressing concerns regarding the poor bioavailability and vague molecular targets would significantly contribute to the widespread acceptance of rhubarb not only as a dietary supplement in food flavorings and colorings but also as a health-promoting TCM in the coming years.

Chronic Variable Stress Induces Hepatic Fe(II) Deposition by Up-Regulating ZIP14 Expression via miR-181 Family Pathway in Rats

Simple Summary

Modern intensive production methods attract accusations of poor animal welfare due to long-term exposure to stressors including high temperature, persistent humidity and overcrowding. Stress can be defined as any condition that threatens the physiological homoeostasis and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responses that tend to restore the prior stable status of the organism. Uncontrollable and unpredictable sources of stress can cause various forms of damage to the liver, which is the central mediator of systemic iron balance. Iron, notably, is an essential element for maintaining health in virtually all organisms. We found that chronic variable stress can cause weight loss and disorders of the liver iron metabolism in rats, thereby triggering liver oxidative damage. Our results also suggest that the miR-181 family is a potential target for treating iron overload-associated diseases.

Abstract

It is well-known that hepatic iron dysregulation, which is harmful to health, can be caused by stress. The aim of the study was to evaluate chronic variable stress (CVS) on liver damage, hepatic ferrous iron deposition and its molecular regulatory mechanism in rats. Sprague Dawley rats at seven weeks of age were randomly divided into two groups: a control group (Con) and a CVS group. CVS reduces body weight, but increases the liver-to-body weight ratio. The exposure of rats to CVS increased plasma aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, but decreased glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity, resulting in liver damage. CVS lowered the total amount of hepatic iron content, but induced hepatic Fe(II) accumulation. CVS up-regulated the expression of transferrin receptor 1 (TFR1) and ZRT/IRT-like protein 14 (ZIP14), but down-regulated ferritin and miR-181 family members. In addition, miR-181 family expression was found to regulate ZIP14 expression in HEK-293T cells by the dual-luciferase reporter system. These results indicate that CVS results in liver damage and induces hepatic Fe(II) accumulation, which is closely associated with the up-regulation of ZIP14 expression via the miR-181 family pathway.

Predicting the potential toxicity of 26 components in Cassiae semen using in silico and in vitro approaches

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A combination of in silico and in vitro methods was applied.

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The potential toxicity of 26 components isolated from Cassiae semen is predicted.

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Six compounds were predicted toxic to liver & ten compounds toxic to kidney.

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Special anthraquinones and anthraquinone-glucosides are potential toxicants.

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Specific group of anthraquinones influences hepatic or renal cytotoxicity.

Cassiae semen are dried and ripe seeds of Cassia obtusifolia L. or Cassia tora L. (Fabaceae) and have been made into roasted tea or used as a traditional medicine in Asian countries. However, it was reported to result in liver and renal toxicity. The components of Cassiae semen that induce hepatotoxicity or nephrotoxicity remain unknown. In the present study, we evaluate the potential toxicity of 26 newly isolated compounds from Cassiae semen using quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) methods and co-culture of hepatic and renal cell approaches, and we aim to illustrate the relationship between the structural characteristics and cytotoxicity by general linear models (GLMs). Both the QSAR models and co-culture of hepatic and renal cell systems predicted that 6 compounds were potentially hepatotoxic, 10 compounds were potentially nephrotoxic, and specific anthraquinones and anthraquinone-glucosides were potential toxicants in Cassiae semen. Specific groups such as –OH and –OCH₃ at the R1, R2, R3, and R7 positions influenced the cytotoxicity.

Emodin-Induced Oxidative Inhibition of Mitochondrial Function Assists BiP/IRE1α/CHOP Signaling-Mediated ER-Related Apoptosis

Cassiae Semen is a widely used herbal medicine and a popular edible variety in many dietary or health beverage. Emerging evidence disclosed that improper administration of Cassiae Semen could induce obvious liver injury, which is possibly attributed to emodin, one of the bioactive anthraquinone compounds in Cassiae Semen, which caused hepatotoxicity, but the underlying mechanisms are not completely understood. Hence, the present study firstly explored the possible role of oxidative stress-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress in emodin-cause apoptosis of L02 cells, aiming to elaborate possible toxic mechanisms involved in emodin-induced hepatotoxicity. Our results showed that emodin-induced ROS activated ER stress and the UPR via the BiP/IRE1α/CHOP signaling pathway, followed by ER Ca²⁺ release and cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ overloading. At the same time, emodin-caused redox imbalance increased mtROS while decreased MMP and mitochondrial function, resulting in the leaks of mitochondrial-related proapoptotic factors. Interestingly, blocking Ca²⁺ release from ER by 2-APB could inhibit emodin-induced apoptosis of L02, but the restored mitochondrial function did not reduce the apoptosis rates of emodin-treated cells. Besides, tunicamycin (TM) and doxorubicin (DOX) were used to activate ER stress and mitochondrial injury at a dosage where obvious apoptosis was not observed, respectively. We found that cotreatment with TM and DOX significantly induced apoptosis of L02 cells. Thus, all the results indicated that emodin-induced excessive ROS generation and redox imbalance promoted apoptosis, which was mainly associated with BiP/IRE1α/CHOP signaling-mediated ER stress and would be enhanced by oxidative stress-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction. Altogether, this finding has implicated that redox imbalance-mediated ER stress could be an alternative target for the treatment of Cassiae Semen or other medicine-food homologous varieties containing emodin-induced liver injury.

How does traditional knowledge of Cassiae semen shed light on weight management? - A classical and modern literature review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The seed of Senna obtusifolia (L.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby (Cassiae semen, CS) also known as Jue ming zi in China, has been traditionally used for weight management by purging the liver and improving the liver functions to support digestion. In the past decades, it has been used for hepatoprotection and treatment of overweight and other metabolic disorders such as hyperlipidaemia and diabetes.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review aimed at providing comprehensive information on the traditional usages, pharmacology, phytochemistry and toxicology of CS and critically exploring its potential usage for clinical weight management from both traditional and modern application perspectives.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In order to fully understand the properties, actions and indications of CS, two sets of Chinese classical texts were searched, namely: Zhong Hua Yi Dian (Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicine) and Zhong Guo Ben Cao Quan Shu (Complete Collection of Traditional Texts on Chinese Materia Medica). The purpose of studying these classical texts was to determine the traditional use of CS in weight management. Comprehensive searches were also performed on seven databases for publications on original randomised clinical trials (RCT), in vivo, in vitro or in silico studies related to pharmacological effects of CS. Detailed information about the phytochemistry of CS was collected from books, encyclopedia, online databases and journal literature.

FINDINGS

In classical literature review, 89 classic texts provided information of properties, actions and indications of CS. In modern literature review, 44 studies were included for analysis, including 5 RCTs, 7 in vivo studies, 14 in vitro studies, 2 in silico studies and 16 studies of mixed types. Chinese classic literature has provided traditional evidence of the usage of CS for weight management. Contemporary studies have revealed that CS has weight loss effects and possesses some other pharmacological activities supporting weight management. Some chemical compounds of CS have been hypothesised to have a direct or indirect contribution to weight control.

CONCLUSIONS

The relationships between chemical compounds and the corresponding weight-loss target proteins are not fully understood. Therefore, CS constituents should be further explored for the development of novel therapeutic or preventive agents for the treatment of overweight and obesity.

Lipid profiles and differential lipids in serum related to severity of community-acquired pneumonia: A pilot study

This study aimed to characterize the lipidomic responses to community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and provide new insight into the underlying mechanisms of pathogenesis and potential avenues for diagnostic and therapeutic treatments. This study was performed from January 2017 to October 2018. Lipidomic profiles were generated using ultra high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) platform. Spearman's rank correlation test and multiple linear regression analysis were applied to explore the correlation between changes in the relative abundance of lipids and clinical parameters. Kaplan-Meier methods were used to build 30-day survival curves. From the UHPLC-MS/MS results, a total of 509 and 195 lipid species were detected in the positive and negative ionization mode respectively. Positive ionization covered six lipid classes (glycerol-phospholipids, glycerolipids, sphingolipids, sterol-lipids, prenol-lipids, and fatty acid), whilst negative ionization covered three (glycerol-phospholipids, sphingolipids, fatty acid). Four lipids were selected as targets: PC (16:0_18:1), PC (18:2_20:4), PC (36:4), and PC (38:6). The relative increase of the areas under the curves for all four lipids were superior to the pneumonia severity index and CURB-65 (confusion, urea, respiratory rate, blood pressure, and age ≥65 years old) for discriminating severe CAP from CAP. Decreasing relative levels of PC (18:2_20:4), PC (38:6), and PC (36:4) were negatively related to fraction of inspiration O2; Changes in the relative abundance of PC (16:0_18:1) and PC (18:2_20:4) had significantly linear relationship with procalcitonin. Patients with an elevated level of PC (16:0_18:1) had significantly longer duration of hospital stays. As the relative abundance of PC (18:2_20:4), PC (36:4), and PC (38:6) decreased, the length of hospitalization days and 30-day mortality rate increased significantly (all log-rank p<0.05). Therefore, using the UHPLC-MS/MS platform's serum lipidomic approach can help reveal changes in lipid abundance during CAP and establish lipid profiles related to disease severity.

The effect of toxic components on metabolomic response of male SD rats exposed to fine particulate matter

PM_2.5 pollution was associated with numerous adverse health effects. However, PM_2.5 induced toxic effects and the relationships with toxic components remain largely unknown. To evaluate the metabolic toxicity of PM_2.5 at environmentally relevant doses, investigate the seasonal variation of PM_2.5 induced toxicity and the relationship with toxic components, a combination of general pathophysiological tests and metabolomics analysis was conducted in this study to explore the response of SD rats to PM_2.5 exposure. The result of general toxicology analysis revealed unconspicuous toxicity of PM_2.5 under environmental dose, but winter PM_2.5 at high dose caused severe histopathological damage to lung. Metabolomic analysis highlighted significant metabolic disorder induced by PM_2.5 even at environmentally relevant doses. Lipid metabolism and GSH metabolism were primarily influenced by PM_2.5 exposure due to the high levels of heavy metals. In addition, high levels of organic compounds such as PAHs, PCBs and PCDD/Fs in winter PM_2.5 bring multiple overlaps on the toxic pathways, resulting in larger pulmonary toxicity and metabolic toxicity in rats than summer.

The water expelling effect evaluation of 3-O-(2'E,4'Z-decadienoyl)-20-O-acetylingenol and ingenol on H22 mouse hepatoma ascites model and their content differences analysis in Euphorbia kansui before and after stir-fried with vinegar by UPLC

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Malignant ascites (MA) effusion is mainly caused by hepatocellular, ovarian, and breast cancer etc. It has been reported that Euphorbia kansui (EK), the root of Euphorbia kansui S.L.Liou ex S.B.Ho, possessing a therapeutic effect on MA. However, the clinical applications of EK are seriously restricted for its severe toxicity. Although studies demonstrated that vinegar-processing can reduce the toxicity and retain the water expelling effect of EK, its specific mechanism remains unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to explore the underlying mechanisms of toxicity reduction without compromising the pharmacological effects of EK stir-fried with vinegar (VEK).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3-O-(2'E,4'Z-decadienoyl)-20-O-acetylingenol (3-O-EZ), a major diterpenoid of EK, could convert into ingenol after processing EK with vinegar. The H22 mouse hepatoma ascites model was replicated, and were given 3-O-EZ and ingenol seven days (110.14, 50.07 and 27.54 mg/kg). The histopathological observation, serum liver enzymes, serum Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) levels, ascites volumes, pro-inflammatory cytokines levels and H22 cells apoptosis in ascites were examined. Then the intestine (Aquaporin 8, AQP8) and kidney (Aquaporin 2, AQP2; Vasopressin type 2 receptor, V2R) protein expression were detected, as well as the metabolomics of serum were analyzed. Finally, the content of 3-O-EZ and ingenol in EK and VEK were investigated.

RESULTS

3-O-EZ and ingenol can relieve hepatic and gastrointestinal injuries, reduce ascites volumes, enhance the H22 cells apoptosis, ameliorate abnormal pro-inflammatory cytokines and RAAS levels, and down-regulate the expression of AQP8, AQP2, V2R. The involved metabolic pathways mainly included glycerophospholipid metabolism and arachidonic acid metabolism. And the decreasing rate of 3-O-EZ in VEK was 19.14%, the increasing rate of ingenol in VEK was 92.31%.

CONCLUSION

3-O-EZ and ingenol possess significant effect in treating MA effusion, while ingenol has lower toxicity compared with 3-O-EZ. And provide evidence for the mechanism of attenuation in toxicity without compromising the pharmacological effects of VEK.

Animal models of cathartic colon

The incidence of cathartic colon has been increasing, but satisfactory treatments are still lacking. In order to study the pathological mechanisms of the disorder and identify effective treatment methods, researchers have established different animal models of cathartic colon. This minireview briefly summarizes several common cathartic colon animal models, induced with anthraquinone laxatives such as rhubarb, total anthraquinone, rhein, and emodin, or induced with diphenylmethane laxatives such as phenolphthalein. The advantages and limitations of these models are evaluated and analyzed. We hope that this review will facilitate the selection of suitable models and improve relevant modeling methods. We anticipate the development of more convenient and stable models that can reflect the characteristics of cathartic colon in humans, and serve as useful tools for further studies.

Urine Metabolomics Study on Potential Hepatoxic Biomarkers Identification in Rats Induced by Aurantio-Obtusin

Previous studies revealed the hepatotoxic effect of aurantio-obtusin on rats. The aim of this study was to identify potential biomarkers of urine caused by aurantio-obtusin. Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats with body weight of 0, 4, 40, and 200 mg/kg were orally given aurantio-obtusin for 28 days, and urine was collected for 24 h after the last administration. The urine metabolites in the aurantio-obtusin group and the control group were analyzed by ultraperformance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS). Twenty-three metabolites were identified as potential biomarkers, and 10 of them were up-regulated, including xanthosine, hippuric acid, 5-L-glutamyl-taurine, etc. The other 13 biomarkers were down-regulated, including thymidine, 3-methyldioxyindole, cholic acid, etc. The significant changes of these biomarkers indicated that purine metabolism, taurine and hypotaurine metabolism, primary bile acid biosynthesis, pyrimidine metabolism, and tryptophan metabolism played an important role in the hepatotoxicity of aurantio-obtusin in rats. In this paper, the safety and potential risk of aurantio-obtusin were studied for the first time by combining the toxicity of aurantio-obtusin with the results of urine metabolomics, which provided information for the mechanism of liver injury induced by aurantio-obtusin.

Role of tryptophan-metabolizing microbiota in mice diarrhea caused by Folium sennae extracts

BACKGROUND

Although reports have provided evidence that diarrhea caused by Folium sennae can result in intestinal microbiota diversity disorder, the intestinal bacterial characteristic and specific mechanism are still unknown. The objective of our study was to investigate the mechanism of diarrhea caused by Folium sennae, which was associated with intestinal bacterial characteristic reshaping and metabolic abnormality.

RESULTS

For the intervention of Folium sennae extracts, Chao1 index and Shannon index were statistical decreased. The Beta diversity clusters of mice interfered by Folium sennae extracts were distinctly separated from control group. Combining PPI network analysis, cytochrome P450 enzymes metabolism was the main signaling pathway of diarrhea caused by Folium sennae. Moreover, 10 bacterial flora communities had statistical significant difference with Folium sennae intervention: the abundance of Paraprevotella, Streptococcus, Epulopiscium, Sutterella and Mycoplasma increased significantly; and the abundance of Adlercreutzia, Lactobacillus, Dehalobacterium, Dorea and Oscillospira reduced significantly. Seven of the 10 intestinal microbiota communities were related to the synthesis of tryptophan derivatives, which affected the transformation of aminotryptophan into L-tryptophan, leading to abnormal tryptophan metabolism in the host.

CONCLUSIONS

Folium sennae targeted cytochrome P450 3A4 to alter intestinal bacterial characteristic and intervene the tryptophan metabolism of intestinal microbiota, such as Streptococcus, Sutterella and Dorea, which could be the intestinal microecological mechanism of diarrhea caused by Folium sennae extracts.

Proteomics Unravels Emodin Causes Liver Oxidative Damage Elicited by Mitochondrial Dysfunction

Emodin is one of the main active compounds in many Chinese traditional herbs. Due to its potential toxic effect on the liver, the possible injury mechanism needs to be explored. In the present study, we investigated liver injury mechanisms of emodin on rats by the technology of proteomics. Firstly, 4530 proteins were identified from the liver of rats treated with emodin by label free proteomics. Inside, 892 differential proteins were selected, presenting a downward trend. Bioinformatics analysis showed that proteins interfered with by emodin were mainly involved in oxidation-reduction biological processes and mitochondrial metabolic pathways, such as mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation, which were further confirmed by western blot. The decrease in maximal respiration, ATP production, spare respiratory capacity, and coupling efficiency and increase in proton leakage were detected by seahorse XFe 24 analyzer, which confirmed the damage of mitochondrial function. The down-regulated expressions in antioxidant proteins were verified by western blot and a significant increase of ROS levels were detected in emodin group, which showed that emodin disrupted redox homeostasis in livers. Molecular docking revealed that the main targets of emodin might be acadvl and complex IV. Generally, emodin could induce oxidative stress in livers by directly targeting acadvl/complex IV and inhibiting fatty acid β-oxidation, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation taken place in mitochondria.

Deltamethrin induces liver fibrosis in quails via activation of the TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway

Deltamethrin (DLM) is an important member of the pyrethroid pesticide family, and its widespread use has led to serious environmental and health problems. Exposure to DLM causes pathological changes in the liver of animals and humans and can lead to liver fibrosis. However, the mechanism of DLM-induced liver fibrosis remains unclear. Therefore, to address its potential molecular mechanisms, we used both in vivo and in vitro methods. Quails were treated in vivo by intragastric administration of different concentrations of DLM (0, 15, 30, or 45 mg kg^-1), and the chicken liver cancer cell line LMH was treated in vitro with various doses of DLM (0, 50, 200, or 800 μg mL^-1). We found that DLM treatment in vivo induced liver fibrosis in a dose-dependent manner through the promotion of oxidative stress, activation of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and phosphorylation of Smad2/3. Treatment of LMH cells with different concentrations of DLM similarly induced oxidative stress and also decreased cell viability. Collectively, our study demonstrates that DLM-induced liver fibrosis in quails occurs via activation of the TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway.

Dendrobium officinale polysaccharides protected against ethanol-induced acute liver injury in vivo and in vitro via the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway

Alcohol-induced liver injury is characterized by strong inflammation. Polysaccharides separated from herbs can prevent ethanol-induced liver injury. Dendrobium officinale Kimura et Migo leaves (D. officinale) are a new food resource that contains a certain amount of polysaccharide. However, the hepatoprotective effects and the potential mechanisms of D. officinale polysaccharide (DOP) remain unknown. Thus, this study aimed to assess the hepatoprotective effects and potential mechanism in vivo and in vitro of DOP. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were used to establish alcohol-induced liver injury models through the oral gavage of absolute alcohol (5 mL/kg) after the oral administration of DOP (400 and 100 mg/kg) for 30 days. Hematoxylin-eosin staining was used for the histological assessments of hepatocyte degeneration, and the AST and ALT levels in the serum and liver tissue were measured. The inflammatory markers were evaluated using ELISA and immunohistochemistry. The potential mechanism of DOP in alcohol-induced liver cell (LO2) injury in vitro was further identified. Results showed that DOP clearly decreased the AST in the serum and hepatic tissue, obviously reduced the production of inflammatory cytokines (such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α), and can successfully inhibit NF-κB phosphorylation in vivo. In vitro experiments indicated that DOP increased the LO2 cell viability; prevented LDH release prominently; reduced the secretion of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α; and reversed the expression of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, caspase 1, NLRP3, p-NF-κB, and TLR4. Overall, DOP can alleviate ethanol-induced acute liver injury via the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Screening of the Hepatotoxic Components in Fructus Gardeniae and Their Effects on Rat Liver BRL-3A Cells

Fructus Gardeniae (FG) is a common Chinese medicine and food. However, the toxicity of FG has drawn increasing concern, especially its hepatotoxicity. The purpose of this study was to screen the hepatotoxic components of FG and evaluate their effects on rat liver BRL-3A cells. The chemical composition of FG was determined by HPLC-ESI-MS. CCK-8 assay was used to evaluate the cytotoxicity of ten chemical components from FG, and then the toxic components with significant inhibitory activity were selected for further study. The results showed that geniposide, genipin, genipin-1-gentiobioside, gardenoside, and shanzhiside all suppress cells viability. Apoptosis assays further indicated that geniposide and its metabolite genipin are the main hepatotoxic components of FG. Pretreatment of cells with geniposide or genipin increased the levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) were decreased, while the malondialdehyde (MDA) level was increased. The cell contents of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and nitric oxide (NO) were also increased. Molecular docking simulations were used to investigate the mechanism of FG-induced hepatotoxicity, revealing that geniposide and genipin bind strongly to the pro-inflammatory factor TNFR1 receptor of the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. The obtained results strongly indicate that the hepatotoxicity of FG is caused by iridoids compounds. Genipin had the most significant hepatotoxic effect. These toxic substances destroy the cell antioxidant defense system, increasing inflammatory injury to the liver cells and leading to apoptosis and even necrosis. Thus, this study lays a foundation for toxicology research into FG and its rational application.