Does the attachment system towards owners change in aged dogs?

Early life adversity in dogs produces altered physiological and behavioral responses during a social stress-buffering paradigm

Although owners can act as stress buffers for their dogs, whether dogs with poor early life histories with humans will respond similarly is unknown. We tested 45 dogs, 23 of which were rescued from adverse conditions, in a social paradigm in which a threatening stranger confronted them with either their owner or an unfamiliar human present. Salivary cortisol levels were assessed at three points, and the dogs' behavior and owners' responses to questionnaires were evaluated. Dogs from adverse backgrounds engaged in greater contact and exhibited more relaxed behaviors and social referencing when their owners were present. Dogs from the comparison group explored more when accompanied by their owners. Dogs from adverse backgrounds experienced greater decreases in cortisol levels from the first to third samples relative to dogs in the comparison group. Dogs from adverse backgrounds were also more likely to respond fearfully to a threatening stranger. Their owners rated them as having higher levels of stranger-directed fear, nonsocial fear, separation-related problems, attention seeking, and lower levels of chasing and trainability. These findings from this study suggest that early adverse environments may have lasting effects on dogs' social behavior.

Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the behavior and physical health of dogs in Rio de Janeiro state: Reflections on the quality of life of dogs and their owners

The COVID-19 pandemic changed the routines of people, consequently changing the daily lives of their pets. Behavioral and emotional changes caused by the stress resulting from restrictions of social isolation and their consequences in the human-animal relationship have been discussed. However, there are still no studies that identify the factors that affect behavior and which are the most susceptible groups. The purpose of this study is to identify behavioral and emotional changes on dogs during the COVID-19 pandemic and their effects on the quality of life of animals and their owners. The methodology used was online questionnaires, which were posted on social networks aimed to dog owners in Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. The results showed that age, sex, dog size, type of home, and restrictions imposed differently affected the type of behavioral change. However, the most frequent type of change was the worsening of previous conditions. Neutered behaviors directly interfered in the lives of owners and their pets, as owners managed the situation and sought information without guidance from a veterinarian, with the possibly consequence of worsening the situation in the future. Veterinarians should actively investigate behavioral changes that have occurred through anamnesis to avoid abandonment and instability in the human-animal relationship.

Two valid and reliable tests for monitoring age-related memory performance and neophobia differences in dogs

The prolonged lifespan of companion dogs has resulted in increased behavioural and physical challenges linked to old age. The development of behavioural tests to identify and monitor age-related differences has begun. However, standardised testing requires validation. The present study aimed to assess external validity, interobserver reliability, and test-retest reliability of an indoor test battery for the rapid assessment of age-related behavioural differences in dogs. Two experimenters tested young dogs (N = 20, mean age ± SD = 2.7 ± 0.4 years) and old dogs (N = 18, mean age ± SD = 11.8 ± 1.3 years) in the test battery once and then again after two weeks. Our results found external validity for two subtests out of six. On both test occasions, old dogs committed more errors than young dogs in a memory subtest and showed more object avoidance when encountering a novel object. Interobserver reliability and test-retest reliability was high. We conclude that the Memory and Novel object subtests are valid and reliable for monitoring age-related memory performance and object neophobic differences in dogs.

Physiological Indicators of Acute and Chronic Stress in Securely and Insecurely Attached Dogs Undergoing a Strange Situation Procedure (SSP): Preliminary Results

Simple Summary

The attachment bond that dogs form towards their owners shares similar features with the bond children form towards their caregivers. Insecurely attached children struggle to find support from their caregivers and therefore to regulate their own emotional response in times of distress. We aimed to investigate whether the quality of dog attachment to the owner may affect their physiological response to stress. We selected ten insecure and ten secure dogs from a sample of individuals who underwent a Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) to assess their attachment pattern towards the owner. The SSP is specifically designed to progressively generate stress. We collected saliva samples before and after the test to measure cortisol concentrations, as an indicator of acute stress, as well as a hair sample to assess chronic stress. We also measured blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate and rectal temperature after the completion of the test. The results showed that salivary cortisol concentrations were higher in insecure dogs, particularly after the test. Heart rate also tended to be higher in insecure dogs. No difference in hair cortisol levels were found between secure and insecure dogs. Dogs’ physiological response to acute stress may be affected by the quality of the attachment to the owners.

Abstract

The quality of the attachment bond towards the caregiver may affect the dog’s physiological responses to stressful stimuli. This study aimed to measure chronic and acute physiological parameters of stress in ten securely and ten insecurely attached dogs. The twenty experimental subjects were selected from a sample of dogs that participated with their owners in the Strange Situation Procedure. Saliva samples were collected before (T0) and after (T1) the test. Blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, and rectal temperature were measured after the test, only. At this time, a hair sample was also collected. RM ANOVA was used to analyse cortisol concentrations between secure and insecure dogs at T0 and T1. Mann–Whitney U test or T test were used for other physiological parameters. Insecure dogs had significant higher salivary cortisol concentrations than secure dogs at T1 (p = 0.024), but only a non-significant trend towards higher cortisol concentrations at T0 (p = 0.099). Post-test heart rate also tended to be higher in insecure compared to secure dogs (p = 0.077). No significant differences in hair cortisol concentration were found. The quality of attachment may affect the dog’s physiological response to acute stress, at least when related to separation from the caregiver. The effect of attachment on chronic stress requires further investigation.

Impact of Changes in Time Left Alone on Separation-Related Behaviour in UK Pet Dogs

Simple Summary

Dogs can develop separation-related behaviours (SRBs), such as barking/howling, pacing, toileting or destroying household items when they are left without human company. These behaviours can be problematic for owners but are also welfare concerns for the dogs because they mean the dog is in a negative emotional state. Many dog owners have been able to spend more time at home with their pets during the COVID-19 pandemic, and there have been concerns this will increase risks of SRB when dogs are left alone for longer again. Here, we surveyed a group of dog owners in the United Kingdom (UK) twice during 2020. In the first survey, we asked owners about their dogs’ behaviour before the pandemic, in February 2020, and at the time of the first lockdown; we then surveyed them again in October 2020 when restrictions had eased. Whether dogs showed SRBs or not changed considerably over the months of the study, and whilst one in two dogs with pre-existing SRBs were no longer showing them in October 2020, one in ten dogs who had previously not shown SRBs before the pandemic were found to have developed SRBs in October. Risk of developing SRBs was found to be linked to the change in time left alone during the lockdown, with dogs whose time alone reduced the most being most at risk of developing new SRBs in October.

Abstract

Separation-related behaviours (SRBs), including but not limited to vocalisation, pacing, destruction and toileting, occur in the absence of human company. As well as being problematic for the dogs’ owners, such behaviours indicate that the dogs’ emotional state is compromised. As part of the COVID-19 pandemic, time spent alone decreased considerably for many pet dogs, leading to concerns about the development of SRBs when dogs are left alone more again. The main aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that dogs whose time left alone decreased most (compared to a February 2020 pre-COVID baseline) would be at greatest risk of developing new signs of SRB when time left alone increased again. To achieve this aim, we utilised survey data gathered from dog owners between 4th May and 3rd July 2020, during the first COVID-19 ‘lockdown’ period in the United Kingdom (UK), and a follow-up survey of the same dog-owner cohort, completed when restrictions had eased between 10th October and 2nd November 2020. Individual dogs fluctuated considerably in whether they showed signs of SRB or not across the study period (n = 1807). Overall, the prevalence of SRB in the population decreased from 22.1% to 17.2%, as did the time dogs were left alone for between February and October 2020. However, 9.9% of dogs had developed new signs of SRB by the follow-up survey in October 2020, with dogs whose leaving hours decreased most during lockdown restrictions being at increased risk of developing SRBs. These findings have implications for our understanding of the etiology of SRB, by showing a link between changes in owner routine and SRB risk.

Development of the Dog Attachment Insecurity Screening Inventory (D-AISI): A Pilot Study on a Sample of Female Owners

Simple Summary

The Strange Situation Procedure is a laboratory test originally designed to assess the quality of a child’s attachment bond to their mother and is widely used in dogs to assess their attachment bond towards the owner. However, the SSP is time consuming and limits the amount and variety of obtainable data. In order to overcome these limitations, we adapted a three-dimensional parent-report scale, named the Attachment Insecurity Screening Inventory (AISI) 6–12, originally developed to assess 6- to 12-year-old children’s attachment insecurity, to dog–owner dyads, and we assessed scale consistency and validity. A first statistical analysis performed on the responses provided by 524 female owners to the online questionnaire revealed five scale dimensions named “physical contact”, “control”, separation anxiety”, “owner as emotional support”, and “owner as a source of positive emotion”. However, a further forced extraction of three components resulted in subscales that mirrored the ones reported for the original AISI in terms of item composition (i.e., ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized). The three subscales also had satisfactory to good measures of internal reliability. The final scale was named the Dog Attachment Insecurity Screening Inventory (D-AISI). Although promising, it needs to be refined and tested for more validity measures.

Abstract

To date, the Strange Situation Procedure is the only tool available to investigate the quality of the dog’s attachment bond towards the owner. This study aimed to adapt a parent-report scale, named the Attachment Insecurity Screening Inventory (AISI) 6–12, originally designed to assess 6- to 12-year-old children’s attachment insecurity, to dog–owner dyads and assess measures of consistency and validity. The online questionnaire was completed by 524 female dog owners. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed five components named, respectively, “physical contact”, “control”, “separation anxiety”, “owner as emotional support”, and “owner as a source of positive emotion”. Because of the three-factor structure of the original AISI, a PCA with a pre-fixed set of three factors was also performed. The resulting subscales mirrored the ones found for the original scale (i.e., ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized), although four items did not fit the model. Internal reliability appeared to be satisfying for the ambivalent and the disorganized subscales, and good for the avoidant subscale. The theoretical background and the results of this study suggest that the three-dimensional model represents a better solution for the interpretation of the Dog Attachment Insecurity Screening Inventory (D-AISI). Although promising, this scale requires refinement and assessment of additional validity measures.

Successful and Unsuccessful Brain Aging in Pets: Pathophysiological Mechanisms behind Clinical Signs and Potential Benefits from Palmitoylethanolamide Nutritional Intervention

Simple Summary

Cognitive dysfunction syndrome is a common yet underreported neurodegenerative disorder of elderly dogs and cats and a natural model of human Alzheimer’s disease. The increasingly expanding life expectancy means a larger proportion of affected animals in the coming decades. Although far from being curative, available treatments are more effective the sooner they are started. Educating veterinary practitioners and owners in the early recognition of age-related cognitive dysfunction is thus mandatory. By shedding light on the mechanism underlying the disease, novel and more effective approaches might be developed. Emerging evidence shows that successful and unsuccessful brain aging share a common underlying mechanism that is neuroinflammation. This process involves astrocytes, microglia, and mast cells and has a restorative homeostatic intent. However, for reasons not fully elucidated yet, neuroinflammation can also exert detrimental consequences substantially contributing to neurodegeneration. Here we summarize the evidence accumulated so far on the pathogenic role of neuroinflammation in the onset and progression of age-related neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease. The potential benefit of palmitoylethanolamide dietary intervention in rebalancing neuroinflammation and exerting neuroprotection is also discussed.

Abstract

Canine and feline cognitive dysfunction syndrome is a common neurodegenerative disorder of old age and a natural model of human Alzheimer’s disease. With the unavoidable expanding life expectancy, an increasing number of small animals will be affected. Although there is no cure, early detection and intervention are vitally important to delay cognitive decline. Knowledge of cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying disease onset and progression is an equally decisive factor for developing effective approaches. Uncontrolled neuroinflammation, orchestrated in the central nervous system mainly by astrocytes, microglia, and resident mast cells, is currently acknowledged as a hallmark of neurodegeneration. This has prompted scientists to find a way to rebalance the altered crosstalk between these cells. In this context, great emphasis has been given to the role played by the expanded endocannabinoid system, i.e., endocannabinoidome, because of its prominent role in physiological and pathological neuroinflammation. Within the endocannabinoidome, great attention has been paid to palmitoylethanolamide due to its safe and pro-homeostatic effects. The availability of new ultramicronized formulations highly improved the oral bioavailability of palmitoylethanolamide, paving the way to its dietary use. Ultramicronized palmitoylethanolamide has been repeatedly tested in animal models of age-related neurodegeneration with promising results. Data accumulated so far suggest that supplementation with ultramicronized palmitoylethanolamide helps to accomplish successful brain aging.

Is this love? Sex differences in dog-owner attachment behavior suggest similarities with adult human bonds

Sex differences in the behavioral responses of Labrador Retriever dogs in the Strange Situation Test were explored. Behaviors expressed by dogs during seven 3-min episodes were analyzed through a Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The scores of factors obtained were analyzed with a Generalized Linear Mixed Model to reveal the effects of the dog's sex and age and the owner's sex. In Episode 1 (dog and owner) and 5 (dog alone), the PCA identified three and two factors, respectively, which overall explained 68.7% and 59.8% of the variance, with no effect of sex. In Episodes 2 (dog, owner, and stranger), 3 and 6 (dog and stranger), and 4 and 7 (dog and owner), the PCA identified four factors, which overall explained 51.0% of the variance. Effects of sex were found on: Factor 1 (distress), with lower scores obtained by females in Episode 2 and higher in Episode 3; Factor 2 (sociability), which was overall higher in females; Factor 3 (separation-distress), with females, but not males, obtaining higher scores when left with the stranger than when with the owner. Therefore, females were overall more social but seemed more affected than males by the owner's absence. Parallels can be traced between our results and sex differences found in adult human romantic attachment, suggesting that the dog-owner bond has characteristics that are not found in the infant-mother relationship.

Evaluation of associations between owner presence and indicators of fear in dogs during routine veterinary examinations

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the influence of owner presence on behavioral and physiologic indicators of fear in dogs during routine physical examinations.

ANIMALS

32 client-owned dogs.

PROCEDURES

Dogs underwent a standardized, video-recorded examination consisting of 6 phases (examination of the head, lymph node palpation, body palpation, axillary temperature measurement, heart rate assessment, and respiratory rate assessment) with or without their owner present in a randomized, controlled study. Behaviors reported to be indicative of fear, including reduced posture, avoidance, escape, lip licking, body shaking, yawning, and vocalizing, were assessed during each phase, and physiologic measurements were assessed during relevant phases by the investigator. Owner presence and sex and age of dogs were investigated for associations with behavioral signs of fear; behavioral and physiologic measurements were compared between groups (owner present vs owner absent).

RESULTS

Dogs in the owner-present group had a lower rate of vocalizations, lower mean axillary temperature, and higher rate of yawning than dogs in the owner-absent group. Female dogs in the owner-absent group had a higher heart rate than females and males in the owner-present group and males in the owner-absent group, and the rate of lip licking decreased as age increased in the owner-present group. The presence of reduced body posture and rates of lip licking, avoidance behavior, and escape behavior were associated with examination phase.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Results suggested that, when practical, owners should be encouraged to remain with their dog during routine veterinary examinations. However, effects of owner presence during procedures require further investigation. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2020;257:1031-1040).

Occurrences of non-linear phenomena and vocal harshness in dog whines as indicators of stress and ageing

During social interactions, acoustic parameters of tetrapods' vocalisations reflect the emotional state of the caller. Higher levels of spectral noise and the occurrence of irregularities (non-linear phenomena NLP) might be negative arousal indicators in alarm calls, although less is known about other distress vocalisations. Family dogs experience different levels of stress during separation from their owner and may vocalise extensively. Analysing their whines can provide evidence for the relationship between arousal and NLP. We recorded 167 family dogs' separation behaviour including vocalisations, assessed their stress level based on behaviour and tested how these, their individual features, and owner reported separation-related problems (SRP) relate to their whines' (N = 4086) spectral noise and NLP. Dogs with SRP produced NLP whines more likely. More active dogs and dogs that tried to escape produced noisier whines. Older dogs' whines were more harmonic than younger ones', but they also showed a higher NLP ratio. Our results show that vocal harshness and NLP are associated with arousal in contact calls, and thus might function as stress indicators. The higher occurrence of NLP in older dogs irrespective to separation stress suggests loss in precise neural control of the larynx, and hence can be a potential ageing indicator.

Behavioural and cognitive changes in aged pet dogs: No effects of an enriched diet and lifelong training

Dogs demonstrate behavioural changes and cognitive decline during aging. Compared to laboratory dogs, little is known about aging in pet dogs exposed to different environments and nutrition. In this study, we examined the effects of age, an enriched diet and lifelong training on different behavioural and cognitive measures in 119 pet dogs (>6yrs). Dogs were maintained on either an enriched diet or a control diet for one year. Lifelong training was calculated using a questionnaire where owners filled in their dog's training experiences to date. Before commencing the diet and after one year of dietary treatment, they were tested in the Modified Vienna Canine Cognitive Battery (MVCCB) consisting of 11 subtests to examine correlated individual differences in a set of tasks measuring general, social and physical cognition and related behaviours. Fourty two behavioural variables were coded and were subjected to principle component analyses for variable reduction. Twelve subtest level components and two Z-transformed variables were subjected to exploratory factor analysis which resulted in six final factors: Problem solving, Trainability, Sociability, Boldness, Activity-independence and Dependency. Problem solving, Sociability, Boldness, and Dependency showed a linear decline with age, suggesting that the MVCCB can be used as a tool to measure behavioural and cognitive decline in aged pet dogs. An enriched diet and lifelong training had no effect on these factors, calling attention to the fact that the real world impact of nutritional and other interventions in possibly counteracting the effects of aging, should be further investigated in pet dogs living under diverse conditions, in order to understand their ultimate effects.

Gut Microbiome Composition is Associated with Age and Memory Performance in Pet Dogs

Gut microbiota can crucially influence behavior and neurodevelopment. Dogs show unique similarities to humans in their physiology and may naturally develop dementia-like cognitive decline. We assessed 29 pet dogs' cognitive performance in a memory test and analyzed the bacterial 16S rRNA gene from fecal samples collected right after the behavioral tests. The major phyla identified in the dog microbiomes were Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Fusobacteria, each represented by >20% of the total bacterial community. Fewer Fusobacteria were found in older dogs and better memory performance was associated with a lower proportion of Actinobacteria. Our preliminary findings support the existence of links between gut microbiota, age, and cognitive performance in pet dogs.

"You can be blind because of loving them so much": the impact on owners in the United Kingdom of living with a dog with osteoarthritis

BACKGROUND

There is growing awareness that caring for a chronically ill pet may have a detrimental impact on their owner's quality of life. Companion animal orthopaedic disease has received little research interest in this context. Canine osteoarthritis is known to negatively affect the welfare of many dogs in the United Kingdom, but its consequences for their owners has not previously been described. The aim of this study was to use a qualitative methodology to explore the impacts on a dog owner that occur following their dog's diagnosis with osteoarthritis. Owners of osteoarthritic dogs based in the United Kingdom (UK) were recruited through veterinary practices to participate in semi-structured interview about life with their dog. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and thematic analysis was used to construct key themes. This publication describes the theme that focused on the impact(s) that the dog's condition had had on the life of their owner.

RESULTS

Forty owners of 35 dogs of a range of breeds and ages were interviewed. A wide range of negative impacts on the physical, mental and financial health of owners were described. Few had any prior experience of canine osteoarthritis, and owners of young dogs appeared to be particularly affected by the diagnosis. Owners detailed increasing worry over time about their pet's condition, frequently combined with a growing need to physically assist their dog. Sometimes this led them to seek information about, and purchase, adjunctive therapies and products. The dog's reduced mobility and need for medications progressively limited their own lifestyles and ability to have time away from their pet. Owners typically described a strong bond with their dog as a motivator to provide ongoing care.

CONCLUSIONS

The negative impacts on owners of caring for an osteoarthritic dog appear multi-faceted and may be sustained over many years, particularly if the dog is young at diagnosis. Owners may be highly motivated to improve their dog's mobility and to reduce the impact the condition has on their own lives, yet they may be unsure how to achieve this. Veterinary professionals should inform and support these owners as much as possible.

Effects of Stroking on Salivary Oxytocin and Cortisol in Guide Dogs: Preliminary Results

This pilot study aimed at investigating how salivary oxytocin levels are affected by human interaction and isolation in eight guide dogs (six Labrador retrievers and two golden retrievers; four males and four females, 21.87 ± 1.36 months old) just before assignment to the blind person. Each dog engaged, at one-week intervals, in a positive (5 min of affiliative interaction with their trainer) and a negative (5 min of isolation) condition. Saliva samples used for Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA) quantification of salivary oxytocin were collected before and immediately after both experimental conditions. In order to assess potential hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis activation that could have affected oxytocin levels, saliva samples were collected 15 min after both experimental conditions for EIA quantification of salivary cortisol and a behavioral assessment was performed during the negative condition. The results were compared using the Wilcoxon test (p < 0.05). Oxytocin concentrations showed a statistically significant increase after the positive interaction (p = 0.036) and no difference after the negative one (p = 0.779). Moreover, no difference (p = 0.263) was found between the cortisol concentrations after each experimental condition and no signs of distress were observed during the isolation phase. These preliminary findings support the hypothesis that stroking dogs has positive effects on their emotional state independently of hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis activation.

A Treatment Plan for Dogs (Canis familiaris) That Show Impaired Social Functioning towards Their Owners

Many domestic dogs are uncomfortable when humans perform trivial and benign actions that the animals perceive as threatening. A common technique for addressing canine emotional discomfort involves desensitization, where the intensity of a problematic stimulus is gradually increased while the dog remains relaxed. Desensitization requires a skillful owner and is complicated when actions of the owner are the stimuli to be desensitised. This paper introduces a behaviour modification programme for dogs with impaired social functioning in relation to the (inter)actions by their owners, consisting of (1) increasing owner knowledge and awareness regarding dog body language and perception of owner actions, (2) management of the daily life of the dog through general stress reduction and avoidance of stressful situations, and (3) behaviour modification through training. The latter component entails a non-threatening, predictable exercise in which the dog has control over any perceived threats, the introduction of the safety cue with subsequent desensitization, and engaging activities with the owner that the dog finds enjoyable. We also present a case series report to examine a selection of dogs with impaired social functioning, from signalment to outcome, when treated with the proposed behaviour modification and examine which adaptations were made to the plan according to individual dogs. Finally, we avenues for future research.

Considerations for the Retirement of Therapy Animals

With the growth of animal-assisted interventions, the number of animals designated to work as therapy animals continues to increase. These animals participate in this work in varying capacities during life, but there will be a point in time when the animal can no longer engage in these activities. The concept of retirement, or withdrawing the animal from its working life, is an important phase of life that every therapy animal will inevitably face. Retirement is typically regarded as a well-deserved reward earned after a lifetime of work, but this termination of an animal's career has potential positive and negative implications for animal, handler, and human participants in these interventions. The question of precisely when and how to appropriately retire an animal is usually answered at the discretion of the handler; however, the validity of this question remains largely unanswered without scientific evidence. The purpose of this review is to describe the implications of therapy animal retirement for the handler, participant, and animal and to discuss the challenges in determining when to retire a therapy animal.

Physiological Indicators of Attachment in Domestic Dogs (Canis familiaris) and Their Owners in the Strange Situation Test

Behaviorally, attachment is demonstrated when one individual maintains close proximity to another individual and shows distress upon separation. For 29 owner-dog dyads, we employed a modified Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test (SST) to investigate whether both members would show a physiological reaction to separation. Dogs experienced a series of separation from and reuniting events with their owners and were introduced to a stranger. Before and after the SST, saliva samples were taken from each dyad to measure stress-related analytes: cortisol (CORT) and chromogranin A (CgA). Dogs exhibited attachment behaviors toward owners as evidenced by more time spent in close proximity, more contact initiated and less time spent near the door, compared to episodes with the stranger. Dogs that initiated more contact with their owners in re-uniting episodes had lower CgA than dogs that initiated less contact, but their owners had higher CgA levels. Also during re-uniting episodes, dogs and owners spent more time near each other when owner CgA levels were low, owner CORT levels were high, and the dog had owner-reported separation anxiety. During the episodes alone with the stranger, dogs with higher CORT spent more time with the stranger. Finally, dogs' initial CgA levels were correlated with their owner's initial CORT levels, and dog final CORT levels were correlated with their owners' final CORT levels, suggesting some hormonal synchrony within the dyad. As all owner-dog dyads were assessed as securely attached, attachment style differences could not explain variation in hormonal or behavioral results. These results suggest that dogs may respond to owner hormonal state and/or behavior and demonstrate that individual differences in responses to a behavioral challenge reflect the stress physiology of both dogs and their owners.

Paving the Path Toward Retirement for Assistance Animals: Transitioning Lives

Assistance animals play significant roles in human therapy and well-being and represent a rapidly growing demographic of animals in society. Most research in the field of assistance animals has been focused on the effect of these animals on people. Only recently has there been a growing interest in the welfare and well-being of these animals and the effect of the work on the animals themselves. The concept of retirement, or withdrawing the animal from its working life, is an important welfare consideration that has received minimal discussion in the scientific literature. The notion of retirement is typically regarded as a reward earned after a lifetime of work, but this inevitable phase of an animal's working life has positive and negative implications for both animal and handler. Some of these implications include recognizing the emotional impact of this life-altering event on both animal and handler. The decisions of when and how to appropriately retire an animal are typically made at the discretion of the assistance animal agencies and handlers, but standard evidence-based guidelines for the proper retirement of assistance animals are currently unavailable. This review will provide considerations and recommendations for the retirement that assistance animals deserve.

Assessment of quality of life and chronic pain in dogs

Assessment of chronic pain and quality of life (QOL) are integral to clinical veterinary research and practice, and recent years have seen an increase in the published tools available for the assessment of both. However, the relationship between chronic pain and QOL in veterinary patients has received insufficient attention. This narrative review for the first time explores similarities, differences and interactions between chronic pain and quality of life and identifies common challenges to their assessment in dogs. In the opinion of these authors, assessments of both chronic pain and quality of life should be pro-active, global, regular, applied to answer specific questions for researchers and decision makers, and transparent about what has, and has not, been assessed. Collaboration in this field between animal welfare scientists, veterinary researchers and clinicians appears rare, and should be prioritised.

The Effect of Breed, Gender, and Acid Stimulation in Dog Saliva Proteome

Saliva gained interest as a potential noninvasive source of biomarkers in humans and that interest starts to be extended also to other animal species. For this purpose, the knowledge of the salivary proteome in healthy conditions and the factors that affect it and how they affect it are necessary. The aim of the present study was to assess the effect that gender and breed have in saliva proteome and the changes in it induced by stimulation with acid. Saliva from 4 different purebred dogs (Portuguese Podengo, Greyhound, Rafeiro Alentejano, and Beagle) of both genders was collected without and after stimulation with lemon juice. SDS-PAGE and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) profiles were compared and the proteins of interest in-gel digested and identified by mass spectrometry. Acid stimulation decreased total protein concentration and the relative amounts of some protein bands/spots. Gender appeared to have minimal effect in saliva proteome, whereas the influence of breed varies. Beagles and Portuguese Podengos were the two breeds with higher differences. In conclusion, stimulation procedures and dog breed should be considered in data analysis when using salivary proteins for diagnostic purposes.

Special Considerations for Diagnosing Behavior Problems in Older Pets

Aging is a complex process that involves changes in sensory perception, cognition, and physical strength. Physiologic, metabolic, and emotional changes of the aging process can lead to behavioral problems in older pets. Treatment of behavior problems in older pets requires a multimodal therapeutic approach. Frequent follow-up visits are required to monitor pets and comment on prognosis. Clients should be informed of the prognosis and should be educated to evaluate pain, discomfort, and general quality of life of the aging pet.

Current Perspectives on Therapy Dog Welfare in Animal-Assisted Interventions

Research into the effects of animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) has primarily addressed human health outcomes. In contrast, only few publications deal with the therapy dog experience of AAIs. This paper provides an overview on potential welfare threats that therapy dogs may encounter and presents the results of a review of available studies on welfare indicators for therapy dogs during AAIs. Previous investigations used physiological and behavioral welfare indicators and dog handler surveys to identify work-related stress. Research outcomes are discussed in the light of strengths and weaknesses of the methods used. Study results suggest that frequency and duration of AAI sessions, novelty of the environment, controllability, age and familiarity of recipients modulate animal welfare indicators. However, this review reveals that currently, clear conclusions on how the well-being of dogs is influenced by the performance in AAIs are lacking due to the heterogeneity of programs, recipient and session characteristics, small dog sample sizes and methodological limitations. This paper further aimed to identify unresolved difficulties in previous research to pave the way for future investigations supporting the applicability of scientific findings in practice.

Effects of Sheltering on Behavior and Fecal Corticosterone Level of Elderly Dogs

In Japan, the human population is aging rapidly, and the abandonment of dogs by the elderly people who have died or been hospitalized becomes a problem. It is hypothesized that elderly dogs have difficulty adapting to the novel circumstances when brought to an animal shelter. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess stress levels and demonstrate stress responses of elderly dogs just after admission to an animal shelter. As stress indicators, fecal corticosterone levels and changes in the ethogram of the dogs were investigated during the first week of admittance. Fecal corticosterone levels (mean ± SE) stayed high during the first week of residence, although they fell gently from the day after admittance (16650.1 ± 3769.7 ng/g) to the seventh day (12178.4 ± 2524.4 ng/g) (P < 0.001). The proportions of behavioral expressions changed as the days passed (P < 0.001). In particular, stereotypies decreased from 35.7% on the first day to 2.6% on the sixth day, and time spent sleeping increased from 0.0 to 42.7%. These results indicate that elderly dogs admitted to an animal shelter seem to behaviorally adapt themselves to their novel circumstances but might be stressed even on the seventh day of residence.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of salivary cortisol measurement in domestic canines

Salivary cortisol is widely used as an indicator of stress and welfare in canine research. However, much remains unclear about the basic features of this hormone marker in domestic dogs. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to determine a reference range for cortisol concentration in the saliva of dogs and examine how canine characteristics, environmental effects and experimental considerations relate to salivary cortisol concentrations. A systematic review of literature databases and conference proceedings from 1992 to 2012 identified 61 peer-reviewed studies using domestic dog salivary cortisol. Researchers were contacted via email, and 31 raw data sets representing a total of 5,153 samples from 1,205 dogs were shared. Meta-analysis provided a cortisol concentration range of 0 to 33.79 μg/dL (mean 0.45 μg/dL, SEM 0.13). Significant effects (P < 0.05) were found for sex and neuter status, age, regular living environment, time in environment before testing, testing environment, owner presence during testing, and collection media. Significant effects were not found for dog breed, body weight, dog type, coat color, assay type, exercise, eating, or use of salivary stimulant. Care should be taken when using cortisol studies for dogs at a group or population level as there is a large amount of intraindividual and interindividual variability and external variables could influence salivary cortisol concentration. This analysis highlights the importance of carefully controlling experimental design to compare samples within and between individual dogs, as well as establishing and using best practices for saliva collection. Caution should be exercised in comparing different studies, as the results could be the reflection of a plethora of factors.