Behavioral changes induced by long-term proline exposure are reversed by antipsychotics in zebrafish

Neurobiology of L-proline: From molecules to behavior

L-proline is an amino acid with a unique cyclic structure, involvement in various physiological processes, such as protein synthesis, collagen production, and neurotransmission. This review explores the complex roles of proline in the central nervous system (CNS), where it contributes to both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission. Additionally, L-proline has distinct metabolic functions attributed to its structural properties. The concentration-dependent effects of L-proline indicate its importance in CNS function, with potential implications for health and disease. Studies in animal models suggest that L-proline influences cognitive function and behavior, with dysregulated levels linked to learning and memory deficits. Furthermore, this review addresses the neuropathological consequences of hyperprolinemia, a metabolic disorder marked by elevated L-proline levels in the CNS and examines the potential role of L-proline in neurological and psychiatric disorders. In sum, this work provides a comprehensive perspective on the neurobiological importance of L-proline, underscoring its involvement in neurotransmission, behavioral modulation, and disease pathology.

Functional Insights Into the Effect of Feralisation on the Gut Microbiota of Cats Worldwide

Successfully adapting to a feral lifestyle with different access to food, shelter and other resources requires rapid physiological and behavioural changes, which could potentially be facilitated by gut microbiota plasticity. To investigate whether alterations in gut microbiota support this transition to a feral lifestyle, we analysed the gut microbiomes of domestic and feral cats from six geographically diverse locations using genome-resolved metagenomics. By reconstructing 229 non-redundant metagenome-assembled genomes from 92 cats, we identified a typical carnivore microbiome structure, with notable diversity and taxonomic differences across regions. While overall diversity metrics did not differ significantly between domestic and feral cats, hierarchical modelling of species communities, accounting for geographic and sex covariates, revealed significantly larger microbial functional capacities among feral cats. The increased capacity for amino acid and lipid degradation corresponds to feral cats' dietary reliance on crude protein and fat. A second modelling analysis, using behavioural phenotype as the main predictor, unveiled a positive association between microbial production of short-chain fatty acids, neurotransmitters and vitamins and cat aggressiveness, suggesting that gut microbes might contribute to heightened aggression and elusiveness observed in feral cats. Functional microbiome shifts may therefore play a significant role in the development of physiological and behavioural traits advantageous for a feral lifestyle, a hypothesis that warrants validation through microbiota manipulation experiments.

Assessment of the Relationship Between Amino Acid Status and Parkinson's Disease: A Comprehensive Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by the inability of dopamine production from amino acids. Therefore, changes in amino acid profile in PD patients are very critical for understanding disease development. Determination of amino acid levels in PD patients with a cumulative approach may enlighten the disease pathophysiology.

METHODS

A systematic search was performed until February 2023, resulting in 733 articles in PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus databases to evaluate the serum amino acid profile of PD patients. Relevant articles in English with mean/standard deviation values of serum amino acid levels of patients and their healthy controls were included in the meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Our results suggest that valine, proline, ornithine and homocysteine levels were increased, while aspartate, citrulline, lysine and serine levels were significantly decreased in PD patients compared to healthy controls. Homocysteine showed positive correlations with glutamate and ornithine levels. We also analyzed the disease stage parameters: Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale III (UPDRS III) score, Hoehn-Yahr Stage Score, disease duration and levodopa equivalent daily dose (LEDD) of patients. It was observed that LEDD has a negative correlation with arginine levels in patients. UPDRS III score is negatively correlated with phenylalanine levels, and it also tends to show a negative correlation with tyrosine levels. Disease duration tends to be negatively correlated with citrulline levels in PD patients.

CONCLUSION

This cumulative analysis shows evidence of the relation between the mechanisms underlying amino acid metabolism in PD, which may have a great impact on disease development and new therapeutic strategies.

Towards Novel Potential Molecular Targets for Antidepressant and Antipsychotic Pharmacotherapies

Depression and schizophrenia are two highly prevalent and severely debilitating neuropsychiatric disorders. Both conventional antidepressant and antipsychotic pharmacotherapies are often inefficient clinically, causing multiple side effects and serious patient compliance problems. Collectively, this calls for the development of novel drug targets for treating depressed and schizophrenic patients. Here, we discuss recent translational advances, research tools and approaches, aiming to facilitate innovative drug discovery in this field. Providing a comprehensive overview of current antidepressants and antipsychotic drugs, we also outline potential novel molecular targets for treating depression and schizophrenia. We also critically evaluate multiple translational challenges and summarize various open questions, in order to foster further integrative cross-discipline research into antidepressant and antipsychotic drug development.

Metoclopramide as a Potential Antipsychotic Against Long-Term Methionine Exposure in Zebrafish

Methionine (MET) contributes to brain function and is required for proper functioning of the central nervous system. However, exceptionally high levels of MET and its metabolites in plasma have been found to be toxic and can lead to cell alterations. Long-term exposure to MET has been shown to mimic psychotic symptoms in schizophrenic patients and rodents. The present study evaluated behavioral and neurochemical effects of long-term exposure to MET in zebrafish. Five groups of zebrafish were exposed to MET at a concentration of 4.5 mM for 7 days, along with acute exposure to 25 μM of clozapine and 750, 1000, and 1250 μM of metoclopramide. In contrast, the normal group was exposed to only water and dimethyl sulfoxide. After the treatment, social interaction, anxiety, memory, and locomotion of zebrafish and serotonin levels in zebrafish brains were evaluated. Our results showed that metoclopramide was not only beneficial in improving MET-induced cognitive impairment but it also prevented social withdrawal in zebrafish exposed to MET. In addition, metoclopramide reversed anxiety-like behavior, as indicated by significant changes in locomotion activity. Despite slight changes in serotonin levels in the zebrafish brain, an in vitro serotonin assay failed to demonstrate significant differences between the disease control, normal, and two treatment groups. Finally, results from the study showed that repeated administration of MET induced schizophrenia-like symptoms, although metoclopramide ameliorated the MET-mediated negative symptoms and cognitive deficits in zebrafish. Overall, our findings suggest a new perspective to further explore the antipsychotic properties of metoclopramide.

Suppression of Chronic Unpredictable Stress-Persuaded Increased Monoamine Oxidase Activity by Taurine Promotes Significant Neuroprotection in Zebrafish Brain

Neuropsychiatric upshots following chronic exposure to unpredictable adverse stressors have been well documented in the literature. Considering the significant impact of chronic unpredictable stress (CUS), the literature is elusive regarding the neuroprotective efficacy of taurine against CUS-induced oxidative stress and chromatin condensation in the zebrafish brain. In this study, to ameliorate CUS-persuaded neurological outcomes, waterborne treatment of taurine as a prophylactic intervention was undertaken. Further, our approach also focused on the gross neurobehavioral response of zebrafish, oxidative stress indices and neuromorphology of the zebrafish brain following CUS exposure with taurine treatment. Because taurine provides significant neuroprotection against oxidative insult, the cytosolic level of monoamine oxidase (MAO) in the zebrafish brain following CUS exposure is worth investigating. Further, as heightened MAO activity is associated with augmented oxidative and chromatin condensation, the focus of this study was on whether taurine provides neuroprotection by downregulating MAO levels in the brain. Our findings show that CUS-persuaded altered neurobehavioral response was significantly rescued by taurine. Moreover, our findings firmly support the hypothesis that taurine acts as a radical neuroprotector by restoring glutathione biosynthesis in the zebrafish brain subsequent to CUS exposure. Additionally, the rising level of brain MAO following chronic exposure to CUS is ameliorated by taurine treatment. These findings strongly advocate the role of taurine as a natural MAO inhibitor through the neuroprotection it provides against CUS-instigated oxidative stress in zebrafish. However, the fundamental neuroprotective mechanism of such natural compounds needs to be elucidated to determine their neuroprotective efficacy against stress regimens.

Proline Metabolism in Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders

Proline plays a multifaceted role in protein synthesis, redox balance, cell fate regulation, brain development, and other cellular and physiological processes. Here, we focus our review on proline metabolism in neurons, highlighting the role of dysregulated proline metabolism in neuronal dysfunction and consequently neurological and psychiatric disorders. We will discuss the association between genetic and protein function of enzymes in the proline pathway and the development of neurological and psychiatric disorders. We will conclude with a potential mechanism of proline metabolism in neuronal function and mental health.

Dopaminergic signaling regulates zebrafish larvae's response to electricity

Electrical stimulation of brain or muscle activities has gained attention for studying the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in electric-induced responses. We recently showed zebrafish's response to electricity. Here, we hypothesized that this response is affected by the dopaminergic signaling pathways. The effects of multiple dopamine agonists and antagonists on the electric response of 6 days-postfertilization zebrafish larvae were investigated using a microfluidic device with enhanced control of experimentation and throughput. All dopamine antagonists decreased locomotor activities, while dopamine agonists did not induce similar behaviors. The D2-selective dopamine agonist quinpirole enhanced the movement. Exposure to nonselective and D1-selective dopamine agonists apomorphine and SKF-81297 caused no significant change in the electric response. Exposing larvae that were pretreated with nonselective and D2-selective dopamine antagonists butaclamol and haloperidol to apomorphine and quinpirole, respectively, restored the electric locomotion. These results reveal a correlation between electric response and dopamine signaling pathway. Furthermore, they demonstrate that electric-induced zebrafish larvae locomotion can be conditioned by modulating dopamine receptor functions. Our electrofluidic assay has profound application potential for fundamental electric-induced response research and brain disorder studies especially those related to the dopamine imbalance and as a chemical screening method when investigating biological pathways and behaviors. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Developmental phenotypic and transcriptomic effects of exposure to nanomolar levels of metformin in zebrafish

Metformin is found in the majority of lakes and streams in the United States, leading to widespread environmental exposure. Results of the present study indicate that extended duration metformin exposure at critical developmental periods leads to decreased survival rates in zebrafish (danio rerio), an NIH approved human model. Significant abnormalities are seen with extended duration metformin exposure from 4 h post fertilization up to 5 days post fertilization, although short term metformin exposure for 24 h at 4-5 days post fertilization did not lead to any significant abnormalities. Both extended and short term duration did however have an impact on locomotor activity of zebrafish, and several genes involved in neurological and cardiovascular development were differentially expressed after exposure to metformin. The changes seen in behavior, gene expression and morphological abnormalities caused by metformin exposure should be examined further in future studies in order to assess their potential human health implications as metformin prescriptions continue to increase worldwide.

Zebrafish models: Gaining insight into purinergic signaling and neurological disorders

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) has been considered a complementary model for biomedical studies, especially due to advantages such as external and rapid development, and genetic manipulation. There is growing interest in this model in neuroscience research since the species has morphological and physiological similarities to mammals and a complex behavioral repertoire. The purinergic signaling has been described in zebrafish, and purinoceptors and nucleotide- and nucleoside-metabolizing enzymes have already been identified in the central nervous system (CNS) of this species. The involvement of the purinergic system in several models of neurological disorders, such as Alzheimers disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, schizophrenia, and autism has been investigated in zebrafish. This mini review presents several studies describing purinergic signaling in the zebrafish CNS and the action of this neurotransmitter system in models of neurological disorders using this species as a biological model. The use of pharmacological approaches at different stages of development may be a useful tool for preclinical assays and the testing of purinergic compounds as new alternatives for the treatment of neurological disorders.

The zebrafish subcortical social brain as a model for studying social behavior disorders

Social behaviors are essential for the survival and reproduction of social species. Many, if not most, neuropsychiatric disorders in humans are either associated with underlying social deficits or are accompanied by social dysfunctions. Traditionally, rodent models have been used to model these behavioral impairments. However, rodent assays are often difficult to scale up and adapt to high-throughput formats, which severely limits their use for systems-level science. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have used zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a model system to study social behavior. These studies have demonstrated clear potential in overcoming some of the limitations of rodent models. In this Review, we explore the evolutionary conservation of a subcortical social brain between teleosts and mammals as the biological basis for using zebrafish to model human social behavior disorders, while summarizing relevant experimental tools and assays. We then discuss the recent advances gleaned from zebrafish social behavior assays, the applications of these assays to studying related disorders, and the opportunities and challenges that lie ahead.

A critical review of zebrafish schizophrenia models: Time for validation?

Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that affects 1% of the population worldwide and is manifested as a broad spectrum of symptoms, from hallucinations to memory impairment. It is believed that genetic and/or environmental factors may contribute to the occurrence of this disease. Recently, the zebrafish has emerged as a valuable and attractive model for various neurological disorders including schizophrenia. In this review, we describe current pharmacological models of schizophrenia with special emphasis on providing insights into the pros and cons of using zebrafish as a behavioural model of this disease. Moreover, we highlight the advantages and utility of using zebrafish for elucidating the genetic mechanisms underlying this psychiatric disorder. We believe that the zebrafish has high potential also in the area of precision medicine and may complement the development of therapeutics, especially for pharmacoresistant patients.

Repurposing of the β-Lactam Antibiotic, Ceftriaxone for Neurological Disorders: A Review

To date, there is no cure or disease-modifying agents available for most well-known neurological disorders. Current therapy is typically focused on relieving symptoms and supportive care in improving the quality of life of affected patients. Furthermore, the traditional de novo drug discovery technique is more challenging, particularly for neurological disorders. Therefore, the repurposing of existing drugs for these conditions is believed to be an efficient and dynamic approach that can substantially reduce the investments spent on drug development. Currently, there is emerging evidence that suggests the potential effect of a beta-lactam antibiotic, ceftriaxone (CEF), to alleviate the symptoms of different experimentally-induced neurological disorders: Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, epileptic-seizure, brain ischemia, traumatic brain injuries, and neuropathic pain. CEF also affects the markers of oxidative status and neuroinflammation, glutamatergic systems as well as various aggregated toxic proteins involved in the pathogenesis of different neurological disorders. Moreover, it was found that CEF administration to drug dependent animal models improved the withdrawal symptoms upon drug discontinuation. Thus, this review aimed to describe the effects of CEF against multiple models of neurological illnesses, drug dependency, and withdrawal. It also emphasizes the possible mechanisms of neuroprotective actions of CEF with respective neurological maladies.

SlgA, encoded by the homolog of the human schizophrenia-associated gene PRODH, acts in clock neurons to regulate Drosophila aggression

Mutations in the proline dehydrogenase gene PRODH are linked to behavioral alterations in schizophrenia and as part of DiGeorge and velo-cardio-facial syndromes, but the role of PRODH in their etiology remains unclear. Here, we establish a Drosophila model to study the role of PRODH in behavioral disorders. We determine the distribution of the Drosophila PRODH homolog slgA in the brain and show that knockdown and overexpression of human PRODH and slgA in the lateral neurons ventral (LNv) lead to altered aggressive behavior. SlgA acts in an isoform-specific manner and is regulated by casein kinase II (CkII). Our data suggest that these effects are, at least partially, due to effects on mitochondrial function. We thus show that precise regulation of proline metabolism is essential to drive normal behavior and we identify Drosophila aggression as a model behavior relevant for the study of the mechanisms that are impaired in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Editors' choice: A Drosophila model to study the role of PRODH, a schizophrenia-associated gene, in behavioral disorders.

Dopamine receptors participate in acquisition and consolidation of latent learning of spatial information in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

There is growing appreciation that various aspects of learning and memory are strongly influenced by dopamine neurotransmission, and that zebrafish hold particular promise in the study of neurotransmitter systems. In this study, we sought to investigate the effect of dopamine receptors on acquisition and consolidation of memory in zebrafish using a latent learning paradigm. To this end, fish were subjected to a 30 min training trial each day for 16 days during which fish were allowed to freely explore a complex maze with the left or right path blocked and without the presence of a reward. During 16 days fish were treated with dopaminergic agonists (apomorphine, SKF-38393, and quinpirole) and antagonists (SCH-23390 and eticlopride) before or after training trials. To assess cognitive performance of fish, a subsequent probe trial was performed on day 17 while all paths leading to a reward chamber were open and the maze now contained stimulus fish as a reward. Pre- and post-training exposure to apomorphine, SKF-38393, and quinpirole significantly impaired learning and memory in fish. In contrast, fish exposed to eticlopride before and after training exhibited improved performance in a latent learning task. Administration of SCH-23390 before training did not affect zebrafish learning ability, but produced significant memory enhancement when given after training trials. Taken together, these findings are the first indications that D1 and D2 receptors are critically involved in acquisition and consolidation of latent learning in zebrafish, with a more prominent role for D2 receptors. The current study opens the door to future studies to investigate the involvement of dopamine receptors in various aspects of cognitive processes.

Alcohol-induced behavioral changes in zebrafish: The role of dopamine D2-like receptors

RATIONALE

The dopaminergic system has been proposed to mediate alcohol-induced locomotor activity, yet the mechanisms underlying this behavioral response remain poorly understood.

OBJECTIVES

This study was conducted to investigate the role of dopamine D2-like receptors in mediating alcohol-induced behavioral responses.

METHODS

In experiment 1, we examined the effects of high concentrations (0, 2.5, 5, 10 μM) of haloperidol on motor responses. In experiment 2, we examined the effects of low concentrations (0, 0.625, 1.25, 2.5 μM) of haloperidol on anxiety-like behavioral responses using the novel tank test. In experiment 3, we examined the effect of pre-treating zebrafish with different concentrations of haloperidol (0, 0.625, 2.5 μM) and subsequently exposing them to 0 or 1 % alcohol.

RESULTS

In experiment 1, haloperidol induced an inverted U-shaped concentration-dependent increase in locomotor activity. In experiment 2, haloperidol (2.5 μM) reduced the absolute turn angle and freezing behavior in a new environment. In experiment 3, acute alcohol exposure significantly increased locomotor activity and decreased anxiety-like behavioral responses. Pre-treating zebrafish with the lower dose of haloperidol (0.625 μM) abolished the alcohol-induced locomotor activity, without altering anxiety-like behavioral responses. However, pre-treating with the higher dose of haloperidol (2.5 μM) abolished both alcohol-induced increase of locomotor activity and reduction of anxiety-like behavioral responses.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest alcohol-induced locomotor hyperactivity in zebrafish is mediated via activation of dopamine D2-like receptors, whereas anxiety-like behavioral responses may only be altered by a high haloperidol concentration, at which dose the drug may affect receptors other than D2-R.

Developing zebrafish models relevant to PTSD and other trauma- and stressor-related disorders

While post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other trauma- and stress-related disorders (TSRDs) represent a serious societal and public health concern, their pathogenesis is largely unknown. Given the clinical complexity of TSRD development and susceptibility, greater investigation into candidate biomarkers and specific genetic pathways implicated in both risk and resilience to trauma becomes critical. In line with this, numerous animal models have been extensively used to better understand the pathogenic mechanisms of PTSD and related TSRD. Here, we discuss the rapidly increasing potential of zebrafish as models of these disorders, and how their use may aid researchers in uncovering novel treatments and therapies in this field.

Methionine Exposure Alters Glutamate Uptake and Adenine Nucleotide Hydrolysis in the Zebrafish Brain

Hypermethioninemic patients may exhibit different neurological dysfunctions, and the mechanisms underlying these pathologies remain obscure. Glutamate and ATP are important excitatory neurotransmitters co-released at synaptic clefts, and whose activities are intrinsically related. Adenosine-the final product of ATP breakdown-is also an important neuromodulator. Here, we investigated the effects of long-term (7-day) exposure to 1.5 or 3 mM methionine (Met) on glutamate uptake in brain tissues (telencephalon, optic tectum, and cerebellum) and on ATP, ADP, and AMP catabolism by ecto-nucleotidases found in brain membrane samples, using a zebrafish model. Also, we evaluated the expression of ecto-nucleotidase (ntdp1, ntdp2mg, ntdp2mq, ntdp2mv, ntdp3, and nt5e) and adenosine receptor (adora1, adora2aa, adora2ab, adora2b) genes in the brain of zebrafish exposed to Met. In animals exposed to 3.0 mM Met, glutamate uptake in the telencephalon decreased significantly. Also, ATP and ADP (but not AMP) catabolism decreased significantly at both Met concentrations tested. The messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of ntpd genes and of the adenosine receptors adora1 and adora2aa increased significantly after Met exposure. In contrast, adora2ab mRNA levels decreased after Met exposure. Our data suggest that glutamate and ATP accumulate at synaptic clefts after Met exposure, with potential detrimental effects to the nervous system. This phenomenon might explain, at least in part, the increased susceptibility of hypermethioninemic patients to neurological symptoms.

Anxiolytic effects of diphenyl diselenide on adult zebrafish in a novelty paradigm

Anxiety-related disorders are frequently observed in the population. Because the available pharmacotherapies for anxiety can cause side effects, new anxiolytic compounds have been screened using behavioral tasks. For example, diphenyl diselenide (PhSe)2, a simple organoselenium compound with neuroprotective effects, has demonstrated anxiolytic effects in rodents. However, this compound has not yet been tested in a novelty-based paradigm in non-mammalian animal models. In this study, we assessed the potential anxiolytic effects of (PhSe)2 on the behavior of adult zebrafish under novelty-induced stress. The animals were pretreated with 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, and 1μM (PhSe)2 in the aquarium water for 30min. The fish were then exposed to a novel tank, and their behavior was quantified during a 6-min trial. (PhSe)2 treatment altered fish behavior in a concentration-dependent manner. At 0.01 and 0.25μM, (PhSe)2 did not elicit effects on fish behavior. At 0.5μM, moderate behavioral side effects (e.g., lethargy and short episodic immobility) were noted. At the highest concentration tested (1μM), dramatic side effects were observed, such as burst behavior and longer periods of immobility. The results were confirmed by spatiotemporal analysis of each group. Occupancy plot data showed dispersed homebase formation in the 0.25μM (PhSe)2-treated group compared with the control group (treated with 0.04% DMSO). Furthermore, animals treated with 0.25μM (PhSe)2 showed a reduction in latency to enter the top and spent more time in the upper area of the tank. These data suggest that (PhSe)2 may induce an anxiolytic-like effect in situations of anxiety evoked by novelty.

Modelling inborn errors of metabolism in zebrafish

The majority of human inborn errors of metabolism are fatal multisystem disorders that lack proper treatment and have a poorly understood mechanistic basis. Novel technologies are required to address this issue, and the use of zebrafish to model these diseases is an emerging field. Here we present the published zebrafish models of inborn metabolic diseases, discuss their validity, and review the novel mechanistic insights that they have provided. We also review the available methods for creating and studying zebrafish disease models, advantages and disadvantages of using this model organism, and successful examples of the use of zebrafish for drug discovery and development. Using a zebrafish to model inborn errors of metabolism in vivo, although still in its infancy, shows promise for a deeper understanding of disease pathomechanisms, onset, and progression, and also for the development of specific therapies.

Diving deeper into Zebrafish development of social behavior: analyzing high resolution data

Vertebrate model organisms have been utilized in high throughput screening but only with substantial cost and human capital investment. The zebrafish is a vertebrate model species that is a promising and cost effective candidate for efficient high throughput screening. Larval zebrafish have already been successfully employed in this regard (Lessman, 2011), but adult zebrafish also show great promise. High throughput screening requires the use of a large number of subjects and collection of substantial amount of data. Collection of data is only one of the demanding aspects of screening. However, in most screening approaches that involve behavioral data the main bottleneck that slows throughput is the time consuming aspect of analysis of the collected data. Some automated analytical tools do exist, but often they only work for one subject at a time, eliminating the possibility of fully utilizing zebrafish as a screening tool. This is a particularly important limitation for such complex phenotypes as social behavior. Testing multiple fish at a time can reveal complex social interactions but it may also allow the identification of outliers from a group of mutagenized or pharmacologically treated fish. Here, we describe a novel method using a custom software tool developed within our laboratory, which enables tracking multiple fish, in combination with a sophisticated analytical approach for summarizing and analyzing high resolution behavioral data. This paper focuses on the latter, the analytic tool, which we have developed using the R programming language and environment for statistical computing. We argue that combining sophisticated data collection methods with appropriate analytical tools will propel zebrafish into the future of neurobehavioral genetic research.

Long-term clinical outcome, therapy and mild mitochondrial dysfunction in hyperprolinemia

Although hyperprolinemia type-II has a discriminative metabolic phenotype and is frequently associated with neurological system involvement, the casual relation between the metabolic abnormalities and the clinical features, except for those of the secondary B6 deficiency, has been frequently debated. In order to evaluate disease frequency and the neuro-metabolic outcome we searched our laboratory database between 1992 and 2010, including 20,991 urinary organic acid profiles. From these individuals 16,720 parallel blood samples were available, and were investigated by serum amino acid analysis. We also evaluated the clinical, neurological, psychological features, laboratory data and vitamin levels and therapeutic effect in metabolically confirmed hyperprolinemia. Due to the mitochondrial localization of both ALDH4A1 and PRODH mitochondrial enzyme complex activity was evaluated and oxygen consumption was measured to assess ATP production in patient-fibroblasts. The Mitochondrial Disease Score was used to evaluate clinical mitochondrial dysfunction. The child behavior checklist was used to screen for psychopathology. We found four patients with increased urinary P5C diagnosed with hyperprolinemia type II, and only one patient had hyperprolinemia type I. All children with hyperprolinemia type II had low normal B6 concentration, and three of the patients had biochemical markers suggesting mitochondrial dysfunction. Mitochondrial dysfunction was confirmed in a muscle biopsy in one case. Intellectual disability was found in two adolescent patients. All patients showed seizures and significant behavioral problems, including anxiety and hallucinations. The clinical course was non-progressive and independent from the B6 concentration and B6 therapy. Hyperprolinemia is a rare inborn error. Individuals with hyperprolinemia should be monitored closely due to their frequent behavioral problems.

PRODH polymorphisms, cortical volumes and thickness in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder with high heritability. Several lines of evidence indicate that the PRODH gene may be related to the disorder. Therefore, our study investigates the effects of 12 polymorphisms of PRODH on schizophrenia and its phenotypes. To further evaluate the roles of the associated variants in the disorder, we have conducted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans to assess cortical volumes and thicknesses. A total of 192 patients were evaluated using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID), Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), Calgary Depression Scale, Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) and Clinical Global Impression (CGI) instruments. The study included 179 controls paired by age and gender. The samples were genotyped using the real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)-PCR and Sanger sequencing methods. A sample of 138 patients and 34 healthy controls underwent MRI scans. One polymorphism was associated with schizophrenia (rs2904552), with the G-allele more frequent in patients than in controls. This polymorphism is likely functional, as predicted by PolyPhen and SIFT, but it was not associated with brain morphology in our study. In summary, we report a functional PRODH variant associated with schizophrenia that may have a neurochemical impact, altering brain function, but is not responsible for the cortical reductions found in the disorder.

Perspectives on zebrafish models of hallucinogenic drugs and related psychotropic compounds

Among different classes of psychotropic drugs, hallucinogenic agents exert one of the most prominent effects on human and animal behaviors, markedly altering sensory, motor, affective, and cognitive responses. The growing clinical and preclinical interest in psychedelic, dissociative, and deliriant hallucinogens necessitates novel translational, sensitive, and high-throughput in vivo models and screens. Primate and rodent models have been traditionally used to study cellular mechanisms and neural circuits of hallucinogenic drugs' action. The utility of zebrafish ( Danio rerio ) in neuroscience research is rapidly growing due to their high physiological and genetic homology to humans, ease of genetic manipulation, robust behaviors, and cost effectiveness. Possessing a fully characterized genome, both adult and larval zebrafish are currently widely used for in vivo screening of various psychotropic compounds, including hallucinogens and related drugs. Recognizing the growing importance of hallucinogens in biological psychiatry, here we discuss hallucinogenic-induced phenotypes in zebrafish and evaluate their potential as efficient preclinical models of drug-induced states in humans.

Zebrafish locomotor capacity and brain acetylcholinesterase activity is altered by Aphanizomenon flos-aquae DC-1 aphantoxins

Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (A. flos-aquae) is a source of neurotoxins known as aphantoxins or paralytic shellfish poisons (PSPs) that present a major threat to the environment and to human health. Generally, altered neurological function is reflected in behavior. Although the molecular mechanism of action of PSPs is well known, its neurobehavioral effects on adult zebrafish and its relationship with altered neurological functions are poorly understood. Aphantoxins purified from a natural isolate of A. flos-aquae DC-1 were analyzed by HPLC. The major analogs found in the toxins were the gonyautoxins 1 and 5 (GTX1 and GTX5; 34.04% and 21.28%, respectively) and the neosaxitoxin (neoSTX, 12.77%). Zebrafish (Danio rerio) were intraperitoneally injected with 5.3 and 7.61 μg STXeq/kg (low and high dose, respectively) of A. flos-aquae DC-1 aphantoxins. The swimming activity was investigated by observation combined with video at 6 timepoints from 1 to 24 h post-exposure. Both aphantoxin doses were associated with delayed touch responses, reduced head-tail locomotory abilities, inflexible turning of head, and a tailward-shifted center of gravity. The normal S-pattern (or undulating) locomotor trajectory was replaced by a mechanical motor pattern of swinging the head after wagging the tail. Finally, these fish principally distributed at the top and/or bottom water of the aquarium, and showed a clear polarized distribution pattern at 12 h post-exposure. Further analysis of neurological function demonstrated that both aphantoxin doses inhibited brain acetylcholinesterase activity. All these changes were dose- and time-dependent. These results demonstrate that aphantoxins can alter locomotor capacity, touch responses and distribution patterns by damaging the cholinergic system of zebrafish, and suggest that zebrafish locomotor behavior and acetylcholinesterase can be used as indicators for investigating aphantoxins and blooms in nature.

Proline-induced changes in acetylcholinesterase activity and gene expression in zebrafish brain: reversal by antipsychotic drugs

Hyperprolinemia is an inherited disorder of proline metabolism and hyperprolinemic patients can present neurological manifestations, such as seizures, cognitive dysfunctions, and schizoaffective disorders. However, the mechanisms related to these symptoms are still unclear. In the present study, we evaluated the in vivo and in vitro effects of proline on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and gene expression in the zebrafish brain. For the in vivo studies, animals were exposed at two proline concentrations (1.5 and 3.0mM) during 1h or 7 days (short- or long-term treatments, respectively). For the in vitro assays, different proline concentrations (ranging from 3.0 to 1000 μM) were tested. Long-term proline exposures significantly increased AChE activity for both treated groups when compared to the control (34% and 39%). Moreover, the proline-induced increase on AChE activity was completely reverted by acute administration of antipsychotic drugs (haloperidol and sulpiride), as well as the changes induced in ache expression. When assessed in vitro, proline did not promote significant changes in AChE activity. Altogether, these data indicate that the enzyme responsible for the control of acetylcholine levels might be altered after proline exposure in the adult zebrafish. These findings contribute for better understanding of the pathophysiology of hyperprolinemia and might reinforce the use of the zebrafish as a complementary vertebrate model for studying inborn errors of amino acid metabolism.

Acute administration of dopaminergic drugs has differential effects on locomotion in larval zebrafish

Altered dopaminergic signaling causes behavioral changes in mammals. In general, dopaminergic receptor agonists increase locomotor activity, while antagonists decrease locomotor activity. In order to determine if zebrafish (a model organism becoming popular in pharmacology and toxicology) respond similarly, the acute effects of drugs known to target dopaminergic receptors in mammals were assessed in zebrafish larvae. Larvae were maintained in 96-well microtiter plates (1 larva/well). Non-lethal concentrations (0.2-50 μM) of dopaminergic agonists (apomorphine, SKF-38393, and quinpirole) and antagonists (butaclamol, SCH-23390, and haloperidol) were administered at 6 days post-fertilization (dpf). An initial experiment identified the time of peak effect of each drug (20-260 min post-dosing, depending on the drug). Locomotor activity was then assessed for 70 min in alternating light and dark at the time of peak effect for each drug to delineate dose-dependent effects. All drugs altered larval locomotion in a dose-dependent manner. Both the D1- and D2-like selective agonists (SKF-38393 and quinpirole, respectively) increased activity, while the selective antagonists (SCH-23390 and haloperidol, respectively) decreased activity. Both selective antagonists also blunted the response of the larvae to changes in lighting conditions at higher doses. The nonselective drugs had biphasic effects on locomotor activity: apomorphine increased activity at the low dose and at high doses, while butaclamol increased activity at low to intermediate doses, and decreased activity at high doses. This study demonstrates that (1) larval zebrafish locomotion can be altered by dopamine receptor agonists and antagonists, (2) receptor agonists and antagonists generally have opposite effects, and (3) drugs that target dopaminergic receptors in mammals appear, in general, to elicit similar locomotor responses in zebrafish larvae.

Long-term proline exposure alters nucleotide catabolism and ectonucleotidase gene expression in zebrafish brain

Hyperprolinemia is an inherited disorder of proline metabolism and hyperprolinemic patients can present neurological manifestations, such as seizures cognitive dysfunctions, and psychotic disorders. However, the underlying mechanisms of these symptoms are still unclear. Since adenine nucleotides play crucial roles in neurotransmission and neuromodulation, we evaluated the in vivo and in vitro effects of proline on ectonucleotidase activities and gene expression in zebrafish brain. For the in vivo studies, animals were exposed at two proline concentrations (1.5 and 3.0 mM) during 1 h or 7 days (short- or long-term treatments, respectively). For the in vitro assays, different proline concentrations (ranging from 3.0 to 1000 μM) were tested. Short-term proline exposure did not promote significant changes on the ectonucleotidase activities and gene expression. Long-term proline exposure significantly increased ATP catabolism in both concentrations tested (14 % and 22 %, respectively), whereas ADP and AMP hydrolysis were increased only at 3.0 mM proline (21 % and 17 %, respectively) when compared to control. Moreover, the relative gene expression of enpd3 increased in both treated groups after long-term proline, whereas enptd1 increased only at 3.0 mM proline. Proline in vitro did not promote significant changes on ectonucleotidase activities. Altogether, these data indicate that the enzymes responsible for the control of extracellular nucleotides levels might be altered after proline exposure in zebrafish, contributing to better understand the pathophysiology of this disease. Moreover, such findings might facilitate the use of the zebrafish as a complementary vertebrate model for studying inborn errors of amino acid metabolism.

A larval zebrafish model of bipolar disorder as a screening platform for neuro-therapeutics

Modelling neurological diseases has proven extraordinarily difficult due to the phenotypic complexity of each disorder. The zebrafish has become a useful model system with which to study abnormal neurological and behavioural activity and holds promise as a model of human disease. While most of the disease modelling using zebrafish has made use of adults, larvae hold tremendous promise for the high-throughput screening of potential therapeutics. The further development of larval disease models will strengthen their ability to contribute to the drug screening process. Here we have used zebrafish larvae to model the symptoms of bipolar disorder by treating larvae with sub-convulsive concentrations of the GABA antagonist pentylenetetrazol (PTZ). A number of therapeutics that act on different targets, in addition to those that have been used to treat bipolar disorder, were tested against this model to assess its predictive value. Carbamazepine, valproic acid, baclofen and honokiol, were found to oppose various aspects of the PTZ-induced changes in activity. Lidocaine and haloperidol exacerbated the PTZ-induced activity changes and sulpiride had no effect. By comparing the degree of phenotypic rescue with the mechanism of action of each therapeutic we have shown that the low-concentration PTZ model can produce a number of intermediate phenotypes that model symptoms of bipolar disorder, may be useful in modelling other disease states, and will help predict the efficacy of novel therapeutics.

Behavioral effects of taurine pretreatment in zebrafish acutely exposed to ethanol

Taurine (TAU) is an amino sulfonic acid that plays protective roles against neurochemical impairments induced by ethanol (EtOH). Mounting evidence shows the applicability of zebrafish for evaluating locomotor parameters and anxiety-like behavioral phenotypes after EtOH exposure in a large scale manner. In this study, we assess the effects of TAU pretreatment on the behavior of zebrafish in the open tank after acute 1% EtOH (v/v) exposure (20 and 60 min of duration) and on brain alcohol contents. The exposure for 20 min exerted significant anxiolytic effects, which were prevented by 42, 150, and 400 mg/L TAU. Conversely, the 60-min condition induced depressant/sedative effects, in which the changes on vertical activity were associated to modifications on the exploratory profile. Although all TAU concentrations kept locomotor parameters at basal levels, 150 mg/L TAU, did not prevent the impairment on vertical activity of EtOH[60]. Despite the higher brain EtOH content detected in the 60-min exposure, 42, 150, and 400 mg/L TAU attenuated the increase of alcohol content in EtOH[60] group. In conclusion, our data suggest that both protocols of acute EtOH exposure induce significant changes in the spatio-temporal behavior of zebrafish and that TAU may exert a preventive role by antagonizing the effects induced by EtOH possibly due to its neuromodulatory role and also by decreasing brain EtOH levels. The hormetic dose-response of TAU on vertical exploration suggests a complex interaction between TAU and EtOH in the central nervous system.