High-strength and self-healable poly (acrylic acid) /chitosan hydrogel with organic-inorganic hydrogen bonding networks

Smart hydrogel: A new platform for cancer therapy

Cancer is a significant contributor to mortality worldwide, posing a significant threat to human life and health. The unique bioactivity, ability to precisely control drug release, and minimally invasive properties of hydrogels are indispensable attributes that facilitate optimal performance in cancer therapy. However, conventional hydrogels lack the ability to dynamically respond to changes in the surrounding environment, withstand drastic changes in the microenvironment, and trigger drug release on demand. Therefore, this review focuses on smart-responsive hydrogels that are capable of adapting and responding to external stimuli. We comprehensively summarize the raw materials, preparation, and cross-linking mechanisms of smart hydrogels derived from natural and synthetic materials, elucidate the response principles of various smart-responsive hydrogels according to different stimulation sources. Further, we systematically illustrate the important role played by hydrogels in modern cancer therapies within the context of therapeutic principles. Meanwhile, the smart hydrogel that uses machine learning to design precise drug delivery has shown great prospects in cancer therapy. Finally, we present the outlook on future developments and make suggestions for future related work. It is anticipated that this review will promote the practical application of smart hydrogels in cancer therapy and contribute to the advancement of medical treatment.

Antibacterial Chitosan-Based Double-Network Hydrogel Patch Loaded with Antioxidant Ceria Nanoparticles and Betamethasone to Treat Psoriasis

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder characterized by keratinocyte hyperproliferation, oxidative stress, and immune dysregulation. In this study, we developed a multifunctional, double-network hydrogel, composed of chitosan and poly(acrylic acid), embedded with cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeNPs) and betamethasone. The hydrogel harnesses the redox-catalytic properties of CeNPs to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) while ensuring sustained betamethasone release for antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects. Its mechanical stability and high water retention make it suitable for long-term skin application. In vitro, the hydrogel enhanced keratinocyte viability under oxidative stress and showed significant antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli. In a psoriasis-induced mouse model, the hydrogel significantly reduced epidermal hyperplasia, suppressed keratinocyte proliferation, and lowered inflammatory cytokine levels. The combination of antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties suggests that this hydrogel offers a promising therapeutic strategy for psoriasis, addressing both oxidative stress and inflammation for effective treatment.

Highly stretchable, self-healing, adhesive, 3D-printable and antibacterial double-network hydrogels for multifunctional wearable sensors

Conductive hydrogels based on sodium alginate (SA) have potential applications in human activity monitoring and personal medical diagnosis due to their good conductivity and flexibility. However, most sensing SA-hydrogels exhibit poor mechanical properties and lack of self-healing, self-adhesive, and antibacterial properties, greatly limiting their practical applications. Therefore, in this paper, a multifunctional double-network PAA-SA hydrogel consisting of poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) and sodium alginate (SA) was prepared by a simple strategy. As a rigid network structure, SA endowed the hydrogel double network structure with excellent mechanical performance. As a wearable sensor, the PAA-SA hydrogel exhibited excellent tensile properties (strain: 1799.2 %), self-healing, high sensitivity (GF = 9.9), reliable repeatability, self-adhesive, 3D printability and antibacterial activity. Additionally, the highly sensitive wearing sensing PAA-SA hydrogel could accurately and real-time monitor various intense or subtle human movements, such as joint bending, face and throat vibration. Moreover, PAA-SA hydrogels were not only used for handwritten recognition of Arabic numerals and English letters, but also for real-time sensing of temperature changes and monitoring of human sweating. The prepared multifunctional wearable sensing hydrogel has the advantages of simple and versatile methods and low cost, making it a promising candidate for applications in different fields such as electronic skin, soft robotics, and medical monitoring.

High-performance conductive double-network hydrogel base on sodium carboxymethyl cellulose for multifunctional wearable sensors

Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose showed great potential in wearable intelligent electronic devices due to its low price and good biocompatibility. This research aimed to develop a novel conductive hydrogel with stretchable, self-healing, self-adhesive, antibacterial, 3D printable properties, for the development of multifunctional flexible electronic materials based on sodium carboxymethyl cellulose. A multifunctional conductive hydrogel based on sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (SCMC) was synthesized by simple polymerization of SCMC, acrylic acid (AA) and alkaline calcium bentonite (AC-Bt). The multifunctional hydrogels (PAA-SCMC) possess excellent mechanical property (stress: 0.25 MPa; strain: 1675.0 %), Young's modulus (75.6 kPa), and conductivity (2.25 S/m). The multifunctional PAA-SCMC hydrogels serve as strain sensors (Gauge Factor (GF) = 12.68), temperature sensors (temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) = -0.887 % °C at 20 °C-60 °C), sweat sensors, and pressure sensors. Importantly, the obtained hydrogels exhibited exceptional self-healing capability, self-adhesive properties, antimicrobial properties and 3D printability. The printed hydrogel has good mechanical properties, conductivity and antibacterial properties. Moreover, the hydrogel sensor possessed prominent sensitivity and cyclic stability to accurately monitor human motion, emotional changes, physiological signals in real time, and a hydrogel-based flexible touch keyboard was also fabricated to recognize writing trajectories. Overall, this study provided novel insights into the simple and efficient synthesis and sustainable manufacturing of environmentally friendly multifunctional flexible electronic skin sensors.

Boron nitride microfiber reinforced polyacrylic acid hydrogels with excellent self-adhesion, fast pH response, and strain sensitivity

Hydrogels are widely utilized in the sensor field, but their inadequate adhesion presents a significant obstacle. Herein, a new multifunctional BNMFs/PAA composite hydrogel was prepared via the incorporation of one-dimensional porous boron nitride microfibers (BNMFs) and polyacrylic acid (PAA) hydrogels. BNMFs, as a reinforcing filler, play a very important role in enhancing the properties of the composite hydrogels. In particular, the porous micrometer structure plays a unique role in improving the adhesion properties of PAA hydrogels. The steric hindrance and the rich hydroxyl functional groups coming from BNMFs are key factors for the excellent adhesion of the composite hydrogels. The composite hydrogels show strong adhesion to various substrate materials. For iron plates and biological tissues, the adhesion energy can reach 1377 J m-2 and 317 J m-2, respectively. In addition, the developed BNMFs/PAA composite hydrogels exhibit excellent mechanical properties. The fracture strain of the composite hydrogels is increased by 2.4 times compared to pure PAA hydrogels. The hydrogen bonds formed between BNMFs and PAA are conducive to the mechanical properties of the BNMFs/PAA composite hydrogels. Meanwhile, BNMFs as fillers play a role in carrying and dissipating force. Furthermore, the BNMFs/PAA composite hydrogels have excellent strain and pH response characteristics. This is because the crosslinking network of the composite hydrogels becomes loose after the addition of BNMFs, resulting in rapid ion transport pathways. Therefore, the developed BNMFs/PAA composite hydrogels will have broad application prospects in the fields of motion monitoring, intelligent skin and biological adhesives.

Nacre-Mimetic Structure Multifunctional Ion-Conductive Hydrogel Strain Sensors with Ultrastretchability, High Sensitivity, and Excellent Adhesive Properties

Recently, conductive hydrogels have emerged as promising materials for smart, wearable devices. However, limited mechanical properties and low sensitivity greatly restrict their lifespan. Based on the design of biomimetic-layered structure, the conductive hydrogels with nacre-mimetic structure were prepared by using layered acrylic bentonite (AABT) and phytic acid (PA) as multifunctional "brick" and "mortar" units. Among them, the unique rigid cyclic multihydroxyl structure of the "organic mortar" PA preserves both ultrastretchability (4050.02%) and high stress (563.20 kPa) of the hydrogel, which far exceeds most of the reported articles. Because of the synergistic effect of AABT and PA, the hydrogel exhibits an excellent adhesive strength (87.74 kPa). The role of AABT in the adhesive properties of hydrogels is proposed for the first time, and a general strategy for improving the adhesive properties of hydrogels by using AABT is demonstrated. Furthermore, AABT provides ion channels and PA ionizes abundant H+, conferring a high gauge factor (GF = 14.95) and excellent antimicrobial properties to the hydrogel. Also, inspired by fruit batteries, simple self-powered flexible sensors were developed. Consequently, this study provides knowledge for functional bentonite filler modified hydrogel, and the prepared multifunctional ionic conductive hydrogel shows great application potential in the field of intelligent wearable devices.

Self-Healable and 4D Printable Hydrogel for Stretchable Electronics

Materials with high stretchability and conductivity are used to fabricate stretchable electronics. Self-healing capability and four-dimensional (4D) printability are becoming increasingly important for these materials to facilitate their recovery from damage and endow them with stimuli-response properties. However, it remains challenging to design a single material that combines these four strengths. Here, a dually crosslinked hydrogel is developed by combining a covalently crosslinked acrylic acid (AAC) network and Fe3+ ions through dynamic and reversible ionically crosslinked coordination. The remarkable electrical sensitivity (a gauge factor of 3.93 under a strain of 1500%), superior stretchability (a fracture strain up to 1700%), self-healing ability (a healing efficiency of 88% and 97% for the mechanical and electrical properties, respectively), and 4D printability of the hydrogel are demonstrated by constructing a strain sensor, a two-dimensional touch panel, and shape-morphing structures with water-responsive behavior. The hydrogel demonstrates vast potential for applications in stretchable electronics.

Construction of chitosan-gelatin polysaccharide-protein composite hydrogel via mechanical stretching and its biocompatibility in vivo

Natural polysaccharides and protein macromolecules are the important components of extracellular matrix (ECM), but individual component generally exhibits weak mechanical property, limited biological function or strong immunogenicity in tissue engineering. Herein, gelatin (Gel) was deposited to the stretched (65 %) chitosan (CS) hydrogel substrates to fabricate the polysaccharide-protein CS-Gel-65 % composite hydrogels to mimic the natural component of ECM and improve the above deficiencies. CS hydrogel substrates under different stretching deformations exhibited tunable morphology, chemical property and wettability, having a vital influence on the secondary structures of deposited fibrous Gel protein, namely appearing with the decreased β-sheet content in stretched CS hydrogel. Gel also produced a more homogenous distribution on the stretched CS hydrogel substrate due to the unfolding of Gel and increased interactions between Gel and CS than on the unstretched substrate. Moreover, the polysaccharide-protein composite hydrogel possessed enhanced mechanical property and oriented structure via stretching-drying method. Besides, in vivo subcutaneous implantation indicated that the CS-Gel-65 % composite hydrogel showed lower immunogenicity, thinner fibrous capsule, better angiogenesis effect and increased M2/M1 of macrophage phenotype. Polysaccharide-protein CS-Gel-65 % composite hydrogel offers a novel material as a tissue engineering scaffold, which could promote angiogenesis and build a good immune microenvironment for the damaged tissue repair.

Chitosan/polyacrylic acid/octadecene double-crosslinked network hydrogel functionalized porous silica microspheres for multimode liquid chromatographic separation

In this study, chitosan (CS) and polyacrylic acid (PAA) were used to construct a double-crosslinked network hydrogel, which was employed as the functional material for silica microspheres to prepare a CS/PAA hydrogel modified liquid chromatographic stationary phase. During preparation, octadecene (ODE) was introduced into the CS/PAA hydrogel to improve its hydrophobicity and separation ability. The electrostatic interaction between the amino group of CS and the carboxyl group of PAA effectively prevented the swelling of the CS/PAA hydrogel, which ensured the successful application of the obtained CS/PAA hydrogel@SiO2 in chromatographic analysis. Polar nucleosides/bases and B-vitamins were selectively separated using hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography. Hydrophobic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and alkylphenols were effectively separated through reversed-phase liquid chromatography. Moreover, the effective separation of aromatic positional isomers and chiral enantiomers was achieved. This study confirms the potential application of the CS/PAA hydrogel in chromatographic separation. What is noteworthy is that the method developed in this study also provides a feasible strategy to solve the swelling issue associated with the hydrogel-based liquid chromatographic stationary phase.

Green synthesis of chitosan/polyacrylic acid/graphitic carbon nitride nanocarrier as a potential pH-sensitive system for curcumin delivery to MCF-7 breast cancer cells

A novel pH-sensitive nanocarrier containing chitosan (CS), polyacrylic acid (PAA), and graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) was designed via water/oil/water (W/O/W) emulsification to administer curcumin (CUR) drug. g-C₃N₄ nanosheets with a high surface area and porous structure were produced via simple one-step pyrolysis process using thiourea as precursor, and incorporated into CS/PAA hydrogel. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) were used to assess the crystalline structure of the nanocarrier and the interactions between its components, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images revealed a spherical structure and confirmed the g-C₃N₄ impregnation into the CS/PAA matrix. Zeta potential and dynamic light scattering (DLS) provided information about the surface charge and average size distribution. High CUR loading and entrapment efficiencies were obtained, which were further improved upon addition of g-C₃N₄. The release kinetics of drug-loaded CS/PAA/g-C₃N₄ nanocomposites were investigated at pH = 5.4 and pH = 7.4, and the results showed an excellent controlled pH-sensitive release profile. Cell apoptosis and in vitro cytotoxicity were investigated using flow cytometry and MTT analyses. CS/PAA/g-C₃N₄/CUR resulted in the highest rate of apoptosis in MCF-7 breast cancer cells, demonstrating the excellent nanocomposite efficacy in eliminating cancerous cells. CS/PAA hydrogel coated with g-C₃N₄ shows great potential for pH-sensitive controlled drug release.

Polymeric Membranes of Chitosan/Aloe Vera Gel Fabrication With Enhanced Swelling and Antimicrobial Properties for Biomedical Applications

Since ancient times, medicinal plants have been used as traditional medicine to treat a variety of ailments. Aloe vera (AV) gel's therapeutic potential is one of the most effective approach in the fabrication of functional materials. The current study aimed to prepare the AV and chitosan (CS) membranes using various cross-linkers that were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform-infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), and ultraviolet-visible (UV-Visible) techniques, as well as swelling ratio and antimicrobial studies. SEM analysis revealed that the membrane is porous, with interconnected pores. The inclusion of AV contents in the membrane improved thermal stability and crystallinity. The swelling ratio of the ACPG-3 membrane with a 2:1 CS to AV ratio was 366%. The membranes showed promising antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and Pasteurella multocida strains. The findings revealed that polymeric CS/AV membranes have effective potential for use in the biomedical field.

Self-healing, antibacterial, and conductive double network hydrogel for strain sensors

Multifunctional hydrogels have great potential in smart wearable technology, flexible electronic devices, and biomedical research. However, it is highly challenging to prepare unique conductive hydrogels with combined properties such as self-healing, self-adhesive, and antibacterial activity. In this regard, herein, a conductive double network hydrogel (ACBt-PAA/CMCs) was fabricated using carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCs), acrylic acid (AA), and alkaline calcium bentonite (ACBt) via a convenient approach. Owing to the hydrogen bond interaction between PAA and CMCs, the ACBt-PAA/CMCs double network structured hydrogels exhibited excellent self-healing (the tensile strength recovered to 74.3 % after 1 h) and adjustable mechanical properties, in which the fracture stress and strain can be easily adjusted in the range of 0.039 to 0.93 MPa and 564 to 2900 %, respectively. In addition, the ACBt-PAA/CMCs hydrogels exhibited the remarkable antibacterial activities against Escherichia coli (bacterial inhibition efficiency of ~99.99 %) and Staphylococcus aureus (bacterial inhibition efficiency of ~99.98 %). Furthermore, the ACBt-PAA/CMCs hydrogel based wearable skin exhibited an excellent real-time sensing performance for monitoring various motions, signifying outstanding sensing and self-adhesion properties. Considering the unique features such as self-healing, excellent adhesion, highly active strain sensing, and antibacterial activities making the ACBt-PAA/CMCs hydrogel is an excellent multifunctional conductive hydrogel. Hence, we believe that this proposed design method for the fabrication of smart and multifunctional conductive hydrogels, and this ACBt-PAA/CMCs hydrogel could be a promising candidate for flexible wearable materials, health monitoring, and beyond.

Hemicellulose-based hydrogels for advanced applications

Hemicellulose-based hydrogels are three-dimensional networked hydrophilic polymer with high water retention, good biocompatibility, and mechanical properties, which have attracted much attention in the field of soft materials. Herein, recent advances and developments in hemicellulose-based hydrogels were reviewed. The preparation method, formation mechanism and properties of hemicellulose-based hydrogels were introduced from the aspects of chemical cross-linking and physical cross-linking. The differences of different initiation systems such as light, enzymes, microwave radiation, and glow discharge electrolytic plasma were summarized. The advanced applications and developments of hemicellulose-based hydrogels in the fields of controlled drug release, wound dressings, high-efficiency adsorption, and sensors were summarized. Finally, the challenges faced in the field of hemicellulose-based hydrogels were summarized and prospected.

Preparation of Salt-Induced Ultra-Stretchable Nanocellulose Composite Hydrogel for Self-Powered Sensors

Hydrogels have attracted much attraction for promising flexible electronics due to the versatile tunability of the properties. However, there is still a big obstacle to balance between the multi-properties and performance of wearable electronics. Herein, we propose a salt-percolated nanocellulose composite hydrogel which was fabricated via radical polymerization with acrylic acid as polymer networks (NaCl-CNCs-PAA). CNCs were utilized as a reinforcing agent to enhance the mechanical properties of the hydrogel. Moreover, the abundant hydroxyl groups endow the hydrogel with noncovalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonding, and the robustness of the hydrogel was thus improved. NaCl incorporation induced the electrostatic interaction between CNCs and PAA polymer blocks, thus facilitating the improvement of the stretchability of the hydrogel. The as-obtained hydrogel exhibited excellent stretchability, ionic conductivity, mechanical robustness and anti-freezing properties, making it suitable for self-powered sensing applications. A single-mode triboelectric nanogenerator (C-TENG) was fabricated by utilizing the composite hydrogel as electrodes. This C-TENG could effectively convert biomechanical energy to electricity (89.2 V, 1.8 µA, 32.1 nC, and the max power density of 60.8 mW m-2 at 1.5 Hz.) Moreover, the composite hydrogel was applied for strain sensing to detect human motions. The nanocellulose composite hydrogel can achieve the application as a power supply in integrated sensing systems and as a strain sensor for human motion detection.