Survey of perceptions and attitudes of an international group of veterinarians regarding antibiotic use and resistance on dairy cattle farms

Barriers to effective antimicrobial resistance management in Nigerian livestock: the role of veterinary practices and client expectations

Resistance to antimicrobials is growing faster than the discovery of new drugs. This problem has raised the global concern of a possible pandemic, as the treatment of infections in both humans and animals is becoming more difficult. This study aimed to understand the opinions of practising veterinarians on the factors responsible for increasing antibiotic resistance among animals in Nigeria. A cross-sectional study of veterinarians from 36 states (including the Federal capital territory) was conducted using a paper-based structured questionnaire survey. The questionnaire was made available to the 1,117 veterinarians who attended 2023 Nigerian Veterinary Medical Association (NVMA). A simple random selection was used to select 295 veterinarians as respondents. The data collected were coded and stored electronically in a Microsoft Excel database and anonymised for further analysis. Statistical analyses were conducted using Excel and SPSS Statistics v24.0. Most veterinarians (89.8%) agreed that the antibiogram test (AST) is important before prescription; however, only a few (4.4%) request for an antibiogram before prescriptions to clients due to the unaffordability of the test by clients (x̄=3.21), the desire for rapid results (x̄=3.06), and the lack of diagnostic laboratories nearby (x̄=2.96). As a result, 61.5% reported that clients had complained that antibiotics prescribed did not work (curative). In addition, veterinarians opined that irrational antibiotic use among animal owners (x̄=4.34), an increased number of quackery (x̄=4.10) and ease of access of the public to antibiotics at veterinary pharmacies/shops (x̄=3.86) were the leading causes of increasing antimicrobial resistance in Nigeria. The significant factors responsible for veterinarians' opinions were education (β = 0.929) and the value of conducting an antibiogram before prescription (β = 1.618) at the p ≤ 0.05 level of significance. This study revealed that irrational antibiotic use among animal owners, an increasing number of quackery and ease of access of the public to antibiotics at veterinary pharmacies/shops were the leading causes of increasing animal antimicrobial resistance in Nigeria. Therefore, this study suggests the development and implementation of policies and frameworks that promote antimicrobial stewardship and the establishment of veterinary laboratories in various communities in the country. Continuous education for veterinarians and livestock workers, especially on AMR, is also critical.

Application of Behavior Change Techniques (BCTTv1) to Reduce Antimicrobial Use in Livestock: A Scoping Review

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a critical global health threat, partly driven by the overuse of antimicrobials in livestock production. Addressing this issue requires targeted interventions to influence behavioral drivers behind AMU practices. Behavior change techniques (BCTs) offer a structured approach to designing such interventions, yet their application in reducing AMU on farms remains underexplored. This scoping review systematically maps the current applications of the Behavior Change Techniques Taxonomy version 1 (BCTTv1) in interventions aimed at reducing AMU in livestock, while also identifying gaps in the literature and opportunities for future research. A comprehensive search across academic databases identified 23 relevant studies. Findings revealed the use of 37 BCTs, with commonly applied techniques including goal setting, instruction on behavior, credible sources, problem-solving, feedback on behavior, and self-monitoring. While some studies explicitly referenced BCTs, many applied them implicitly, without alignment with standardized frameworks. Intervention outcomes were influenced by contextual factors including financial, logistical, cultural, and technical challenges. This review underscores the importance of explicitly integrating and systematically reporting BCTs to enhance transparency, replicability, and scalability. Future interventions should adopt tailored, context-specific approaches to address regional and sectoral challenges, ultimately contributing to global efforts in combating AMR through improved antimicrobial stewardship.

Capturing the complexity of veterinarians' antibiotic prescribing practices in the livestock sector: a meta-ethnography across contexts: Veterinarians' antibiotic prescribing in different contexts

Strategies and policies to tackle the global public health threat of antimicrobial resistance are increasingly addressing antimicrobial use prescribing practices in both the human and animal health sectors. Veterinarians' antibiotic prescribing practices are influenced by different factors and conditioned by the context within which antibiotic prescribing decisions are made, complexifying the implementation of behaviour change interventions. A better understanding of these factors could therefore help in the design and application of such interventions. Meta-ethnography was used to explore the antibiotic prescribing behaviour of veterinarians in different contexts and to construct a new conceptual framework. A search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science Core Collection and SciELO Citation Index between 2016 and 2024. The final sample consisted of 29 articles, 27 of which were selected from the 561 articles identified in the search and 2 of which were added by the authors. The results were synthesized and presented through four contextual situations influencing antibiotic prescribing by livestock veterinarians: priorities and pressures, uncertain field conditions, systemic challenges and an enabling environment. The results are presented as a conceptual framework that views veterinarians' antibiotic prescribing behaviour as dynamic, adapting in response to the different contextual situations they encounter. The findings provide an integrated and contextualized understanding of veterinarians' antibiotic prescribing behaviours, which could be implemented to facilitate the development and application of future antimicrobial stewardship interventions.

The Contribution of Dairy Bedding and Silage to the Dissemination of Genes Coding for Antimicrobial Resistance: A Narrative Review

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a concern in the dairy industry. Recent studies have indicated that bedding serves as a reservoir for antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and antimicrobial-resistance genes (ARGs), while silage has been proposed as another possible source. The impact of AMR in dairy farming can be significant, resulting in decreased productivity and economic losses for farmers. Several studies have highlighted the safety implications of AMR bacteria and genes in bedding and silage, emphasizing the need for further research on how housing, bedding, and silage management affect AMR in farm environments. Exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of antibiotics, such as those from contaminated bedding and silage, can prompt bacteria to develop resistance mechanisms. Thus, even if antimicrobial usage is diminished, ARGs may be maintained in the dairy farm environment. By implementing proactive measures to tackle AMR in dairy farming, we can take steps to preserve the health and productivity of dairy cattle while also protecting public health. This involves addressing the prudent use of antibiotics during production and promoting animal welfare, hygiene, and management practices in bedding and farm environments to minimize the risk of AMR development and spread. This narrative review compiles the growing research, positioning the contribution of bedding and silage to the prevalence and dissemination of AMR, which can elicit insights for researchers and policymakers.

Factors Associated with Inappropriate Use of Antibiotics Among Animal Health Professionals in Selected Districts of Rwanda, 2021

BACKGROUND

Antibiotic resistance is a global health concern. Humans can acquire antibiotic resistance through human-to-human transmission, from the environment, via the food chain, and through the contact with animals. The National Action Plan on antimicrobial resistance 2020-2024 highlights the prudent use of antibiotics in veterinary activities as the key element in keeping antibiotics effective. We determined the factors associated with misuse of antibiotics among animal health professionals in Rwanda.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study that enrolled animal health field professionals from five districts, where stratified random sampling was used to select one district by each province of Rwanda. Structured questions were used during face-to-face interviews. The misuse of antibiotics was defined as the use of antibiotics for reasons other than treatment, the non-completion of required courses, or the use of a high dose (i.e., an overdose) of antibiotics. We collected socio-demographic data of respondents, as well as elementary knowledge and perceptions on veterinary antibiotics and antibiotic resistance. A backward stepwise logistic regression model was used to identify the factors that were predictive of the inappropriate use of antibiotics.

RESULTS

There were 256 respondents to the survey. Of those, 198 were male and 58 were female. Almost three quarters of respondents (n = 174/256; 68%) reported the misuse of antibiotics at least once in the previous 12 months. The final logistic regression analysis identified the following factors to be predictive of antibiotics misuse: aged ≤ 24 years (aOR 0.92; 95% CI [0.88, 0.96]; p < 0.001); low trust in veterinary antibiotics available in the local market (aOR 8.45; 95% CI [4.18, 17.07]; p < 0.01), insufficient knowledge about basic understanding of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance (aOR 2.78; 95% CI [1.38, 5.58], p < 0.01) and not acquiring any continuing education (aOR 1.97; 95% CI [1.02, 4.19]; p = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified inadequate perceptions of proper antibiotic use among animal health professionals. There is a need for continuous education on appropriate antibiotic use among animal health professionals to lessen the negative impact of antibiotic resistance on public health security.

Why prescribe antibiotics? A systematic review of knowledge, tension, and motivation among clinicians in low-, middle- and high-income countries

Medical professionals such as physicians and veterinarians are responsible for appropriate antimicrobial prescription (AMP) and use. Although seemingly straightforward, the factors influencing antibiotic prescription, a category of antimicrobials, are complex. Many studies have been conducted in the past two decades on this subject. As a result, there is a plethora of empirical evidence regarding the factors influencing clinicians' AMP practices.

AIM

A systematic review of AMR studies on AMP was conducted, condensing findings according to a combination of the Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice (KAP) and Capacity, Opportunity, Motivation-Behavior (COM-B) models. Review findings were then synthesized and analyzed for policy implementation according to the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR).

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

A systematic literature review was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines to identify peer-reviewed papers indexed in pre-determined medical science, social sciences, and humanities databases that apply the KAP model in their investigations. Antimicrobial prescription factors were compared and contrasted among low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and high-income countries (HICs).

FINDINGS

The KAP model is a heuristic and structured framework for identifying and classifying respondents' knowledge. However, other than medical knowledge, factors that influence prescription decision-making can be expanded to include attitudes, perception, personal affinities, professional circumstances, relational pressure, and social norms.

Microfluidic systems for infectious disease diagnostics

Microorganisms, encompassing both uni- and multicellular entities, exhibit remarkable diversity as omnipresent life forms in nature. They play a pivotal role by supplying essential components for sustaining biological processes across diverse ecosystems, including higher host organisms. The complex interactions within the human gut microbiota are crucial for metabolic functions, immune responses, and biochemical signalling, particularly through the gut-brain axis. Viruses also play important roles in biological processes, for example by increasing genetic diversity through horizontal gene transfer when replicating inside living cells. On the other hand, infection of the human body by microbiological agents may lead to severe physiological disorders and diseases. Infectious diseases pose a significant burden on global healthcare systems, characterized by substantial variations in the epidemiological landscape. Fast spreading antibiotic resistance or uncontrolled outbreaks of communicable diseases are major challenges at present. Furthermore, delivering field-proven point-of-care diagnostic tools to the most severely affected populations in low-resource settings is particularly important and challenging. New paradigms and technological approaches enabling rapid and informed disease management need to be implemented. In this respect, infectious disease diagnostics taking advantage of microfluidic systems combined with integrated biosensor-based pathogen detection offers a host of innovative and promising solutions. In this review, we aim to outline recent activities and progress in the development of microfluidic diagnostic tools. Our literature research mainly covers the last 5 years. We will follow a classification scheme based on the human body systems primarily involved at the clinical level or on specific pathogen transmission modes. Important diseases, such as tuberculosis and malaria, will be addressed more extensively.

Factors influencing Scottish dairy farmers' antimicrobial usage, knowledge and attitude towards antimicrobial resistance

Understanding how farmers use antimicrobials and their awareness and beliefs about antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is essential to improve antimicrobial usage (AMU) practices and combat AMR on dairy farms. A cross-sectional online survey was carried out to identify the factors affecting attitudes, knowledge and behaviour of Scottish dairy producers regarding prudent AMU and the emergence of AMR in livestock. The survey was designed based on the earlier findings of two focus groups and was disseminated online via multiple methods (e.g., social media; farming press). Participation was voluntary and answers were obtained from 61 respondents (7.3% of the total population of Scottish dairy farmers). Logistic and ordinal regression analyses were performed to identify predictors for farmers' level of knowledge about antimicrobials and AMR, AMU behaviour and attitudes towards AMR mitigation. Associations were described with odds ratios (OR) and the associated 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Farmers were more likely to have better knowledge of antimicrobials and AMR if they had undertaken a university degree (OR = 28.28, P < 0.001), worked with mixed livestock (dairy plus sheep/beef) (OR = 4.82, P < 0.05), and trusted only veterinarians' information about responsible AMU (OR = 4.42, P < 0.05). In the survey disease scenarios, younger farmers were less likely to be classed as low antimicrobial users (OR = 0.18, P < 0.05) compared to older farmers. Respondents working on larger herds were also less likely to be low antimicrobial users compared to those working on smaller herds (OR = 0.12, P < 0.01). Conversely, farmers who did not consider economic factors (e.g., cost and withdrawal period) in antimicrobial choice were more likely to be classed as low antimicrobial users (OR = 6.17, P < 0.01). Respondents were more likely to show positive attitudes towards AMR mitigation if they worked in larger (OR = 4.67, P < 0.05) or organic dairy farms (OR = 18.35, P < 0.05). These results suggest that several practices, social, demographic, and economic factors influence dairy farmers' perception and awareness of AMR and AMU. Efforts should be made to consider these variables when developing strategies to improve AMU in dairy farming. Veterinarians and advisors should focus AMU training and AMR awareness-raising activities towards younger, less experienced farmers as well as those with a lower educational qualification (high school vs. university degree). This study can inform the development of targeted educational initiatives to encourage responsible AMU on dairy farms.

Standardization and evaluation of indicators for quantifying antimicrobial use on U.S. dairy farms

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global One Health threat. A portion of AMR development can be attributed to antimicrobial use (AMU) in animals, including dairy cattle. Quantifying AMU on U.S. dairy farms is necessary to inform antimicrobial stewardship strategies and help evaluate the relationship between AMU and AMR. Many AMU indicators have been proposed for quantifying AMU in dairy cattle. However, these indicators are difficult to interpret and compare because they differ in the type of data used, the calculation approach, and the definitions of variables and parameters used in the calculation. Therefore, we selected 16 indicators (count-based, mass-based, and dose-based) applicable for quantifying AMU on U.S. dairy farms. We systematized the indicators by standardizing their variables and parameters to improve their interchangeability, interpretation, and comparability. We scored indicators against six data-driven criteria (assessing their accuracy, data and effort needs, and level of privacy concern) and five stewardship-driven criteria (assessing their ability to capture trends and inform antimicrobial stewardship). The derived standardized indicators will aid farmers and veterinarians in selecting suitable indicators based on data availability and stewardship needs on a farm. The comparison of indicators revealed a trade-off requiring farmers to balance the granularity of data necessary for an accurate indicator and effort to collect the data, and a trade-off relevant to farmers interested in data sharing to inform stewardship because more accurate indicators are typically based on more sensitive information. Indicators with better accuracy tended to score better in stewardship criteria. Overall, two dose-based indicators, estimating the number of treatments and administered doses, scored best in accuracy and stewardship. Conversely, two count-based indicators, estimating the length of AMU, and a mass-based indicator, estimating the mass of administered antimicrobials, performed best in the effort and privacy criteria. These findings are expected to benefit One Health by aiding the uptake of farm-level AMU indicators by U.S. dairy farms.

A review of the predictors of antimicrobial use and resistance in European food animal production

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major threat to global health and a key One Health challenge linking humans, animals, and the environment. Livestock are a key target for moderation of antimicrobial use (AMU), which is a major driver of AMR in these species. While some studies have assessed AMU and AMR in individual production systems, the evidence regarding predictors of AMU and AMR in livestock is fragmented, with significant research gaps in identifying the predictors of AMU and AMR common across farming systems. This review summarizes existing knowledge to identify key practices and critical control points determining on-farm AMU/AMR determinants for pigs, layer and broiler hens, beef and dairy cattle, sheep, turkeys, and farmed salmon in Europe. The quality and quantity of evidence differed between livestock types, with sheep, beef cattle, laying hens, turkeys and salmon underrepresented. Interventions to mitigate both AMU and/or AMR highlighted in these studies included biosecurity and herd health plans. Organic production typically showed significantly lower AMU across species, but even in antibiotic-free systems, varying AMR levels were identified in livestock microflora. Although vaccination is frequently implemented as part of herd health plans, its effects on AMU/AMR remain unclear at farm level. Social and behavioral factors were identified as important influences on AMU. The study fills a conspicuous gap in the existing AMR and One Health literatures examining links between farm management practices and AMU and AMR in European livestock production.

Antimicrobial usage and resistance in scottish dairy herds: a survey of farmers' knowledge, behaviours and attitudes

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a major threat to global health. Understanding how antimicrobials are used on dairy farms and stakeholder beliefs relating to their use is essential to ensure responsible antimicrobial usage (AMU) to tackle the emergence of AMR. This study explored Scottish dairy farmers' knowledge about the meaning of AMR and antimicrobial activity, behaviour and practices related to farm AMU and attitudes towards AMR mitigation. An online survey was designed based on the findings of two focus groups and was completed by 61 respondents (7.3% of the total population of Scottish dairy farmers). Knowledge of antimicrobials and AMR was variable, and almost half of the participants believed that antimicrobials could have anti-inflammatory or analgesic activity. Veterinarians' opinions and advice about AMU were ranked significantly more important than other social referents or advisors. The majority of farmers (90%) reported having implemented practices to reduce reliance on antimicrobials (e.g., selective dry cow therapy, AMU treatment protocols) and having reduced farm AMU over recent years. Feeding waste milk to calves is still widespread, being reported by up to 30% of respondents. The main factors described to hinder responsible farm AMU were limited facilities (e.g., lack of isolation pens for sick animals) and knowledge of appropriate AMU recommendations, followed by time and financial constraints. Most farmers (89%) agreed that it is important to reduce AMU on dairy farms, but fewer (52%) acknowledged that AMU on UK dairy farms is currently too high, suggesting a mismatch between their intention to reduce antimicrobials and AMU behaviour. These results indicate that dairy farmers are aware of AMR, and their self-reported farm AMU has been reduced. However, some do not clearly comprehend the activity of antimicrobials and their correct usage. More work is needed to improve dairy farmers' knowledge of appropriate AMU and intentions to combat AMR. Farmers would benefit from more regular AMU discussions and advice from herd veterinarians, as they were described as highly trusted information resources. Training on how to reduce AMU should involve all farm staff administering antimicrobials and should be tailored to farm-specific barriers, such as limited facilities and workforce shortages.

Behaviour change interventions for responsible antimicrobial use on farms

BACKGROUND

In the coming years, major governance changes in the form of policy directives and regulations will catalyse major top-down change with respect to animal health on European farms in an effort to combat the OneHealth threat of antimicrobial resistance. This top-down approach must be met with bottom-up strategies to ensure target actors (namely, farmers and vets) are supported and motivated to change their practices, thus, avoiding unintended consequences of forced change. Although much behavioural research has explored the factors influencing antimicrobial practices on farms, a gap exists translating these findings into evidence-based behaviour change interventions that can be put into practice. The current study aims to fill this gap. It provides insights into identifying, understanding, and changing the behaviours of farmers and veterinarians with respect to the responsible use of antimicrobials in farming.

RESULTS

Through an inter-disciplinary and multi-actor approach, the study combines scientific knowledge from the behavioural sciences and animal health sciences, coupled with tacit knowledge from a co-design, participatory approach to recommend seven behaviour change interventions that can help to support good practices amongst farmers and vets, with respect to animal health, and reduce the use of antimicrobials on farms. The behaviour change interventions include message framing; OneHealth awareness campaign; specialised communications training; on-farm visual prompts and tools; social support strategies (for both farmers and vets); and antimicrobial use monitoring. The study details each intervention with respect to their evidence base and scientific concept, grounded in behavioural science, along with stakeholder feedback on design and delivery of the interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

These behaviour change interventions can be taken, adapted, and put into practice by the agri-food community to support good animal health practices and responsible antimicrobial use on farms.

Barriers and facilitators to implementing a new regulation restricting antimicrobial use in dairy production in Québec, Canada: A qualitative study

With the emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), many countries are implementing restrictive regulations to reduce antimicrobial use (AMU) in animal production. Although these measures are effective at the national level, their implementation may generate challenges for producers and veterinarians. The objective of this study was to explore the barriers and facilitators of implementing a new regulation restricting the use of antimicrobials of very high importance for human health in the dairy production sector in the province of Québec, Canada. Individual interviews were conducted with fifteen veterinarians and twenty-seven dairy producers. Thematic analysis was performed based on the COM-B model of behavior change (capability-opportunity-motivation-behavior). Our results indicated that the lack of availability of alternative treatments, the long delays related to diagnostic tests and the fear of economic consequences were major barriers to the implementation of the regulation. A small number of producers also perceived that the regulation negatively impacted the health and wellbeing of their animals. Additionally, participants acknowledged the importance of early education and training to better understand the purpose of the regulation and increase its acceptability. Lastly, most participants reported that they had not only reduced their use of antimicrobials of very high importance for human health following the regulation, but they had also increased preventive practices on their farm. This study reveals that the implementation of restrictive regulations to reduce AMU in animal production can lead to multiple challenges in practice. Our results highlight the need for better communication and training of producers and veterinarians before and during the implementation of similar regulations in the future and underline the importance of measuring the direct and indirect impacts of those regulations on productivity and on animal health and wellbeing.

Prescribing and sales of intramammary antimicrobials in Ireland in 2019 and 2020: the role of milk purchasers

Background

In Ireland between 2008 and 2022, intramammary antimicrobial (AM) products could be prescribed by a veterinary practitioner under what was known as Schedule 8 (or remote) prescribing. Under this prescribing route, an annual herd visit was not required when criteria were met as outlined in Animal Remedies Regulation 2007 to 2017 (statutory instruments No. 786/2007 and 558/2017). Under this prescribing route, the responsibilities of the milk purchaser, the farmer and the veterinary practitioner were each outlined, and a written mastitis control programme (MCP) was required. Milk purchasers implemented MCPs on participating farms (so-called MCP herds) with support from veterinary practitioner(s) who undertook Schedule 8 prescribing of intramammary AM tubes. This study seeks a clearer understanding of the role of milk purchasers in the prescribing and sale of intramammary AM products in Ireland during 2019 and 2020, whilst this Regulation was in force. Specifically, the study sought insights into the role of milk purchasers in the prescribing and sale of intramammary AM products in the Irish dairy industry during 2019 and 2020, using anonymised and highly aggregated milk purchaser data. The study also provided insights into milk quality among supplying herds during this period.

Methods

For this study, we had access to anonymised, highly aggregated data from all milk purchasers that operated a MCP on at least some of their supplying herds during 2019 or 2020. Data collection was undertaken by the Department of Agriculture, Food and Marine. Data analysis was primarily descriptive.

Results

Data were available on 11 milk purchasers (64.7% of all) and 13,251 supplying herds. Of these, 52% were MCP herds. The quality of milk from supplying herds varied significantly by month, year and milk purchaser. During 2019 and 2020, there was a single Schedule 8 prescriber (a private veterinary practitioner prescribing intramammary AMs as part of a MCP), on average, for 549.3 herds. The sale of intramammary AM products through milk purchasers represented 15.2% and 26.9% of national sales in in-lactation and dry cow tubes, respectively. There was an overall 2% increase in sales through milk purchasers between 2019 and 2020. Few European Medicines Agency (EMA) category B (‘Restrict’) intramammary AM products were sold by milk purchasers. For both in-lactation and dry cow tubes, there was a statistically significant association between EMA classification and route of sale (through milk purchasers or otherwise).

Conclusions

The study findings provide important insights into mastitis control and intramammary AM stewardship in the Irish dairy industry. Significant differences between milk purchasers were observed in the quality of milk, as measured through somatic cell count (SCC) values, from supplying herds. This warrants further research. In the context of intramammary AM prescribing, veterinary oversight under the Animal Remedies Regulation 2007 to 2017 was very limited during 2019 and 2020. There were also significant associations between EMA classification and route of sale during 2019 and 2020, reinforcing the need for Irish veterinary practitioners to move away from EMA category B intramammary AMs. Higher quality data are needed to address important industry questions. Specifically it is recommended that national bulk tank SCC data are made available for public good research. Past experiences with Schedule 8 prescribing (no longer permitted from 28 January 2022) may influence current efforts towards improved intramammary AM stewardship.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13620-022-00227-4.

Perception of poultry veterinarians on the use of antimicrobials and antimicrobial resistance in egg production

This study aimed to describe the perception of veterinarians who work with commercial laying hens in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, regarding the use of antibiotics and their possible impacts on animal, human, and environmental health. A descriptive epidemiological study was carried out through face-to-face or web conferencing interviews with the veterinarians that provide technical assistance at commercial laying hen operations. A standardized and structured questionnaire was developed based on the literature and expert opinion, which contained 1 opened and 40 closed questions. Conventional non-probabilistic sampling was used, based on an initial list of 15 veterinarians registered in the Poultry Production Association of Rio Grande do Sul, followed by the snowball technique. The acquisition of 26 contacts of veterinarians was accomplished, and 16 were interviewed. Through the answers obtained it was possible to verify that the interviewees' understanding regarding both the antibiotic resistance impact and the decision-making about the use of antibiotics seem to be linked to their practical experiences. Besides that, according to the veterinarians, farmers can acquire and administer the antimicrobials on their farms. Moreover, both farm storage and administration of lower doses of antibiotics than the recommended one could be contributing factors to resistant bacteria selection. Furthermore, controversially, the professionals believed that resistant bacteria can be transmitted to humans from eggs, but they said that there are no bacteria in eggs. Therefore, the veterinarians´ practices can be improved considering national and international guidelines on antimicrobial resistance to minimize the development of resistance. Finally, it is expected that the present results will contribute to a more complex discussion about antimicrobial resistance, helping to formulate public policies in the egg production industry.

Prevalence of Multidrug-Resistant CTX-M Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli From Different Bovine Faeces in China

CTX-M extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli cause severe health hazards in livestock breeding. To date, little is known about antibiotic resistance differences among bacterial isolates from yaks, cows, and beef cattle; therefore, the aims of this study were to analyse the prevalence of CTX-M-producing E. coli in yak, beef cattle, and dairy cattle feces from different provinces in China. A total of 790 fecal samples from yaks, beef cattle, and dairy cows were used. Among all the samples, 523 non duplicate E. coli isolates were identified, and 29.6% of samples harbored CTX-M producers. The results showed that these E. coli strains harbored 15 clusters of CTX-M genes: CTX-M-79, CTX-M-55, CTX-M-15, CTX-M-14, CTX-M-28, CTX-M-179, CTX-M-65, CTX-M-24, CTX-M-27, CTX-M-102, CTX-M-105, CTX-M-173, CTX-M-238, CTX-M-196, and CTX-M-10. The dominant resistance genes were CTX-M-15, CTX-M-14, and CTX-M-55. Moreover, the distribution of CTX-M genes was related to geographical region. Based on the above findings, we reasoned that bovines are potential reservoirs of antibiotic resistance, and this problem should be given adequate attention.

Farm Animal Veterinarians' Knowledge and Attitudes toward Antimicrobial Resistance and Antimicrobial Use in the Republic of Serbia

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is considered one of the most prevalent global health issues in both veterinarian and human medicine. This complex problem requires a "One Health" approach with the cooperation of all healthcare sectors, as well as agriculture, finance, and consumers. We conducted a survey with the objective to assess the knowledge and attitudes of farm animal veterinarians toward AMR and antimicrobial use in the Republic of Serbia with a small focus on mastitis therapy. A total of 110 respondents completed the questionnaire, which represents a response rate of 27.3%. The majority of our respondents (n = 102, 92.7%) completely agreed that AMR currently represents severe concern in the health sector. Unfortunately, less than one-third (n = 34, 30.9%) of the respondents had only heard about antimicrobial stewardship. Participants showed a positive attitude toward prudent antimicrobial use and were open to solutions to the AMR crisis. We noticed a certain gap between farm veterinarians' desire to improve and perform better in daily practice, while at the same time feeling like they did not have enough guidance, help, and resources.

Occurrence and Effects of Antimicrobials Drugs in Aquatic Ecosystems

Currently, thanks to the development of sensitive analytical techniques, the presence of different emerging pollutants in aquatic ecosystems has been evidenced; however, most of them have not been submitted to any regulation so far. Among emerging contaminants, antimicrobials have received particular attention in recent decades, mainly due to the concerning development of antibiotic resistance observed in bacteria, but little is known about the toxicological and ecological impact that antimicrobials can have on aquatic ecosystems. Their high consumption in human and veterinary medicine, food-producing animals and aquaculture, as well as persistence and poor absorption have caused antimicrobials to be discharged into receiving waters, with or without prior treatment, where they have been detected at ng-mg L−1 levels with the potential to cause effects on the various organisms living within aquatic systems. This review presents the current knowledge on the occurrence of antimicrobials in aquatic ecosystems, emphasizing their occurrence in different environmental matrixes and the effects on aquatic organisms (cyanobacteria, microalgae, invertebrates and vertebrates).

New York State dairy veterinarians' perceptions of antibiotic use and resistance: A qualitative interview study

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) limits the ability to prevent and treat infection, making AMR one of the foremost threats to human and animal health. Animal agriculture's large use of antibiotics in food animals is an important factor in AMR. As such, policies to reduce antibiotic use and combat AMR in animal agriculture in the United States (US) have been in place or are developed. One key to the success of these policies in the US is understanding how a major stakeholder - veterinarians treating dairy cattle - perceive the scale of antibiotic use, the threat of AMR and the utility of antibiotic use policies. We interviewed 9 dairy veterinarians in New York State and conducted an iterative thematic analysis of their responses, through which five themes were identified: 1. veterinarians' views of the frequency and reasons for antibiotic misuse, 2. their ideas on reducing antibiotic use, 3. perceptions of AMR within the dairy industry, 4. view of organic farming and how it relates to animal welfare, and 5. the impact of consumers' beliefs on the dairy industry. Participants viewed antibiotic overuse as largely due to farmers' concern for the welfare of their cattle and desire to treat ailments swiftly. Interviewees believed that it was possible to reduce antibiotic use through regulation, such as the Veterinary Feed Directive and improved herd management activities, such as better colostrum management, culture-based mastitis treatment, and improved housing conditions. They did not view the dairy industry as a significant contributor to AMR, particularly when compared to the human medical industry. Interviewees also offered their (unsolicited) opinion on organic dairy farming in the US and expressed frustration with the limited treatment options available in organic dairy farming and how this dynamic may potentially compromise animal welfare. Finally, they commented on the impact of consumers' beliefs on the dairy industry, expressing frustration with how misinformation about the dairy industry has led to consumer driven changes. As consumer beliefs have an impact on the dairy industry, this influence could be leveraged to further decrease antibiotic use. These findings can help guide future efforts in veterinarian-client communication and the development and implementation of effective policies in New York State. These results also highlight the need for more quantitative research on antibiotic use in the dairy industry, as without this data it will be difficult to ascertain the true impact of policy interventions.