Preparation of minor ginsenosides C-Mx and C-K from notoginseng leaf ginsenosides by a special ginsenosidase type-I

The transformation pathways and optimization of conditions for preparation minor ginsenosides from Panax notoginseng root by the fungus Aspergillus tubingensis

Minor ginsenosides exhibit enhanced pharmacological effects in comparison to the major ginsenosides. However, the natural content of minor ginsenosides in plants is typically insufficient to satisfy clinical demand. Therefore, we investigated the biotransformation of the major ginsenosides in Panax notoginseng to minor ginsenosides by the fungus Aspergillus tubingensis. The transformation products were analyzed using TLC, HPLC, and LC-MS techniques to propose the biotransformation pathways of major ginsenosides. A. tubingensis was found to transform the main ginsenosides into 15 minor ginsenosides, inculding (R/S)-Rg3, Rk1, Rg5, F2, (R/S)-Rh1, Rk3, Rh4, (R/S)-Rg2, F4, Rg6 and (R/S)-R2. The transformation reactions encompassed isomerization, hydrolysis and dehydration. We have also optimized the reaction temperature and pH for the crude enzyme extracted from this fungus, which has a molecular weight of 66 kDa. Based on our current knowledge, this transformative characteristic of A. tubingensis was initially documented for the concurrent transformation of PPD and PPT type saponins in P. notoginseng. This method of preparing minor saponins will be valuable for the development of P. notoginseng as a traditional medicinal material.

Comparison of the Transformation Ability of the Major Saponins in Panax notoginseng by Penicillum fimorum Enzyme and Commercial β-glucosidase

Ginsenosides with less sugar groups, which are called minor ginsenosides, might have a greater pharmacological activity and better adsorptive ability, but their content in nature is extremely low. In this study, a strain of Penicillium fimorum with a strong saponin transformation ability was isolated from fresh Gastrodia elata. A comparative biotransformation experiment of the major saponins from Panax notoginseng root were conducted using crude enzymes from P. fimorum and commercial β-glucosidase to produce minor ginsenosides. Specifically, the crude enzyme from P. fimorum was able to transform the major saponins from P. notoginseng root into 13 minor saponins in 72 h, while commercial β-glucosidase was able to transform the same major saponins into 15 minor saponins in 72 h. The most significant difference between these two enzymes is their ability to transform Rb1. To the best of our knowledge, the biotransformation ability of crude enzymes from P. fimorum is reported here for the first time. These two enzymes have the potential to improve the economic value of P. notoginseng root and expand the methods for preparing minor saponins by transforming major saponins in the total saponins of P. notoginseng root.

Ginsenoside, a potential natural product against liver diseases: a comprehensive review from molecular mechanisms to application

Liver disease constitutes a significant cause of global mortality, with its pathogenesis being multifaceted. Identifying effective pharmacological and preventive strategies is imperative for liver protection. Ginsenosides, the major bioactive compounds found in ginseng, exhibit multiple pharmacological activities including protection against liver-related diseases by mitigating liver fat accumulation and inflammation, preventing hepatic fibrosis, and exerting anti-hepatocarcinogenic effects. However, a comprehensive overview elucidating the regulatory pathways associated with ginsenosides in liver disease remains elusive. This review aims to consolidate the molecular mechanisms through which different ginsenosides ameliorate distinct liver diseases, alongside the pathogenic factors underlying liver ailments. Notably, ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 demonstrate significantly effective in treating fatty liver, hepatitis, and liver fibrosis, and ginsenosides CK and Rh2 exhibit potent anti-hepatocellular carcinogenic effects. Their molecular mechanisms underlying these effects primarily involve the modulation of AMPK, NF-κB, TGF-β, NFR2, JNK, and other pathways, thereby attenuating hepatic fat accumulation, inflammation, inhibition of hepatic stellate cell activation, and promoting apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Furthermore, it provides insights into the safety profile and current applications of ginsenosides, thereby facilitating their clinical development. Consequently, ginsenosides present promising prospects for liver disease management, underscoring their potential as valuable therapeutic agents in this context.

Production and pharmaceutical research of minor saponins in Panax notoginseng (Sanqi): Current status and future prospects

Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen is a traditional medicinal herb known as Sanqi or Tianqi in Asia and is commonly used worldwide. It is one of the main raw ingredients of Yunnan Baiyao, Fu fang dan shen di wan, and San qi shang yao pian. It is also a source of cardiotonic pill used to treat cardiovascular diseases in China, Korea, and Russia. Approximately 270 Panax notoginseng saponins have been isolated and identified as the major active components. Although the absorption and bioavailability of saponins are predominantly dependent on the gastrointestinal biotransformation capacity of an individual, minor saponins are better absorbed into the bloodstream and act as active substances than major saponins. Notably, minor saponins are absent or are present in minimal quantities under natural conditions. In this review, we focus on the strategies for the enrichment and production of minor saponins in P. notoginseng using physical, chemical, enzyme catalytic, and microbial methods. Moreover, pharmacological studies on minor saponins derived from P. notoginseng over the last decade are discussed. This review serves as a meaningful resource and guide, offering scholarly references for delving deeper into the exploration of the minor saponins in P. notoginseng.

Production of Minor Ginsenosides from Panax notoginseng Flowers by Cladosporium xylophilum

Panax notoginseng flowers have the highest content of saponins compared to the other parts of Panax notoginseng, but minor ginsenosides have higher pharmacological activity than the main natural ginsenosides. Therefore, this study focused on the transformation of the main ginsenosides in Panax notoginseng flowers to minor ginsenosides using the fungus of Cladosporium xylophilum isolated from soil. The main ginsenosides Rb₁, Rb₂, Rb₃, and Rc and the notoginsenoside Fa in Panax notoginseng flowers were transformed into the ginsenosides F₂ and Rd₂, the notoginsenosides Fd and Fe, and the ginsenoside R₇; the conversion rates were 100, 100, 100, 88.5, and 100%, respectively. The transformation products were studied by TLC, HPLC, and MS analyses, and the biotransformation pathways of the major ginsenosides were proposed. In addition, the purified enzyme of the fungus was prepared with the molecular weight of 66.4 kDa. The transformation of the monomer ginsenosides by the crude enzyme is consistent with that by the fungus. Additionally, three saponins were isolated from the transformation products and identified as the ginsenoside Rd₂ and the notoginsenosides Fe and Fd by NMR and MS analyses. This study provided a unique and powerful microbial strain for efficiently transformating major ginsenosides in P. notoginseng flowers to minor ginsenosides, which will help raise the functional and economic value of the P. notoginseng flower.

Fermented Red Ginseng Alleviates Ovalbumin-Induced Inflammation in Mice by Suppressing Interleukin-4 and Immunoglobulin E Expression

Ginseng (the root of Panax ginseng Meyer) has been reported to have many biologic therapeutic effects, including anti-inflammatory properties, and ginsenosides are considered as one of the factors responsible for these therapeutic effects. To improve their therapeutic action, probiotic bacteria are used to ferment and chemically transform ginsenosides in red ginseng (RG). In this study, we aimed to investigate the beneficial effects of RG fermented by probiotic bacteria (FRG) against ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergic rhinitis in a mouse model. We induced the mouse model via OVA inhalation; experimental results revealed increased immunoglobulin E (IgE) and interleukin (IL)-4 levels, leading to Th2-type cytokine response. The mice with induced allergy were then orally administered RG and FRG over 2 weeks, as a result of which, IL-4 and IgE levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, nasal fluid, and serum were found to be ameliorated more effectively by FRG than by RG, suggesting that FRG has better immune regulatory effects than RG. FRG also downregulated immune cell levels, such as those of eosinophils and basophils, and significantly decreased the thickness of OVA-induced respiratory epithelium compared to RG. Collectively, the results showed that FRG treatment alleviates inflammation, thereby extending a protective effect to mice with OVA-induced inflammatory allergic rhinitis.

Compound K producing from the enzymatic conversion of gypenoside by naringinase

Compound K is a type of protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides (PPDs) that has strong bioactivities due to fewer glycosyls. However, compound K is not present in raw and unprocessed ginseng. Some PPDs have the same structure with gypenosides, and could be obtained from Gynostemma pentaphyllum. The enzymolysis of PPD-type gypenosides of G. pentaphyllum by naringinase has been reported for the first time in this research. In addition, isolation and identification of enzymolysis end product, and the optimization of enzymolysis parameters were investigated. The results showed that compound K was produced from the enzymolysis of PPD-type gypenosides by naringinase, and could be isolated and purificated by HP-20 macroporous resin and C-18 column chromatography. The optimum enzymolysis conditions determined by the response surface methodology (RSM) are pH 4.1, 50 °C, and 71 h, with a yield of 65.44 ± 4.52% for compound K. These results demonstrated that enzymolysis could be a promising method for producing compound K from the biotransformation of PPD-type gypenosides of G. pentaphyllum.

Dynamic changes of multi-notoginseng stem-leaf ginsenosides in reaction with ginsenosidase type-I

BACKGROUND

Notoginseng stem-leaf (NGL) ginsenosides have not been well used. To improve their utilization, the biotransformation of NGL ginsenosides was studied using ginsenosidase type-I from Aspergillus niger g.848.

METHODS

NGL ginsenosides were reacted with a crude enzyme in the RAT-5D bioreactor, and the dynamic changes of multi-ginsenosides of NGL were recognized by HPLC. The reaction products were separated using a silica gel column and identified by HPLC and NMR.

RESULTS

All the NGL ginsenosides are protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides; the main ginsenoside contents are 27.1% Rb3, 15.7% C-Mx1, 13.8% Rc, 11.1% Fc, 7.10% Fa, 6.44% C-Mc, 5.08% Rb2, and 4.31% Rb1. In the reaction of NGL ginsenosides with crude enzyme, the main reaction of Rb3 and C-Mx1 occurred through Rb3→C-Mx1→C-Mx; when reacted for 1 h, Rb3 decreased from 27.1% to 9.82 %, C-Mx1 increased from 15.5% to 32.3%, C-Mx was produced to 6.46%, finally into C-Mx and a small amount of C-K. When reacted for 1.5 h, all the Rb1, Rd, and Gyp17 were completely reacted, and the reaction intermediate F2 was produced to 8.25%, finally into C-K. The main reaction of Rc (13.8%) occurred through Rc→C-Mc1→C-Mc→C-K. The enzyme barely hydrolyzed the terminal xyloside on 3-O- or 20-O-sugar-moiety of the substrate; therefore, 9.43 g C-Mx, 6.85 g C-K, 4.50 g R7, and 4.71 g Fc (hardly separating from the substrate) were obtained from 50 g NGL ginsenosides by the crude enzyme reaction.

CONCLUSION

Four monomer ginsenosides were successfully produced and separated from NGL ginsenosides by the enzyme reaction.

Ginsenoside C-Mx Isolated from Notoginseng Stem-leaf Ginsenosides Attenuates Ultraviolet B-mediated Photoaging in Human Dermal Fibroblasts

Notoginseng is a traditional herbal medicine widely used for medicinal therapy in Asia, as it contains numerous ginsenosides with pharmacological effects. In this study, we submitted Notoginseng stem-leaf (NGL) ginsenosides to an enzyme to create a reaction with the monomer products of ginsenoside C-Mx and then investigated the ability of ginsenoside C-Mx to protect the skin against ultraviolet B-induced injury in normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDFs). Ginsenoside C-Mx alleviated UVB-induced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), MMP-1 and IL-6 expression while accelerating TGF-β and procollagen type I secretion. In addition, ginsenoside C-Mx reversed UVB-induced procollagen type I reduction by regulating the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway. Moreover, ginsenoside C-Mx inhibited activation of AP-1 transcription factor, an inducer of MMPs. Ginsenoside C-Mx displayed an outstanding antioxidant capacity, increasing expression of cytoprotective antioxidants such as HO-1 and NQO-1 expression by enhancing the nuclear accumulation of Nrf2. Interestingly, application of ginsenoside C-Mx treatment (1, 10, 20 μm) significantly diminished UVB-induced suppressed NF-κB expression, decreasing the over-released inflammatory cytokines. Taken together, our findings indicated that ginsenoside C-Mx may act as a promising natural cosmetic ingredient for prevention and treatment of UVB-induced skin damage.

Preparative separation of minor saponins from Panax notoginseng leaves using biotransformation, macroporous resins, and preparative high-performance liquid chromatography

Background

Ginsenosides with less sugar moieties may exhibit the better adsorptive capacity and more pharmacological activities.

Methods

An efficient method for the separation of four minor saponins, including gypenoside XVII, notoginsenoside Fe, ginsenoside Rd2, and notoginsenoside Fd, from Panax notoginseng leaves (PNL) was established using biotransformation, macroporous resins, and subsequent preparative high-performance liquid chromatography.

Results

The dried PNL powder was immersed in the distilled water at 50°C for 30 min for converting the major saponins, ginsenosides Rb1, Rc, Rb2, and Rb3, to minor saponins, gypenoside XVII, notoginsenoside Fe, ginsenoside Rd2, and notoginsenoside Fd, respectively, by the enzymes present in PNL. The adsorption characteristics of these minor saponins on five types of macroporous resins, D-101, DA-201, DM-301, X-5, and S-8, were evaluated and compared. Among them, D-101 was selected due to the best adsorption and desorption properties. Under the optimized conditions, the fraction containing the four target saponins was separated by D-101 resin. Subsequently, the target minor saponins were individually separated and purified by preparative high-performance liquid chromatography with a reversed-phase column.

Conclusion

Our study provides a simple and efficient method for the preparation of these four minor saponins from PNL, which will be potential for industrial applications.

Fermentation of red ginseng extract by the probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum KCCM 11613P: ginsenoside conversion and antioxidant effects

Background

Ginsenosides, which are bioactive components in ginseng, can be converted to smaller compounds for improvement of their pharmacological activities. The conversion methods include heating; acid, alkali, and enzymatic treatment; and microbial conversion. The aim of this study was to determine the bioconversion of ginsenosides in fermented red ginseng extract (FRGE).

Methods

Red ginseng extract (RGE) was fermented using Lactobacillus plantarum KCCM 11613P. This study investigated the ginsenosides and their antioxidant capacity in FRGE using diverse methods.

Results

Properties of RGE were changed upon fermentation. Fermentation reduced the pH value, but increased the titratable acidity and viable cell counts of lactic acid bacteria. L. plantarum KCCM 11613P converted ginsenosides Rb₂ and Rb₃ to ginsenoside Rd in RGE. Fermentation also enhanced the antioxidant effects of RGE. FRGE reduced 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity and reducing power; however, it improved the inhibition of β-carotene and linoleic acid oxidation and the lipid peroxidation. This suggested that the fermentation of RGE is effective for producing ginsenoside Rd as precursor of ginsenoside compound K and inhibition of lipid oxidation.

Conclusion

This study showed that RGE fermented by L. plantarum KCCM 11613P may contribute to the development of functional food materials.

A literature update elucidating production of Panax ginsenosides with a special focus on strategies enriching the anti-neoplastic minor ginsenosides in ginseng preparations

Ginseng, an oriental gift to the world of healthcare and preventive medicine, is among the top ten medicinal herbs globally. The constitutive triterpene saponins, ginsenosides, or panaxosides are attributed to ginseng's miraculous efficacy towards anti-aging, rejuvenating, and immune-potentiating benefits. The major ginsenosides such as Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd., Re, and Rg1, formed after extensive glycosylations of the aglycone "dammaranediol," dominate the chemical profile of this genus in vivo and in vitro. Elicitations have successfully led to appreciable enhancements in the production of these major ginsenosides. However, current research on ginseng biotechnology has been focusing on the enrichment or production of the minor ginsenosides (the less glycosylated precursors of the major ginsenosides) in ginseng preparations, which are either absent or are produced in very low amounts in nature or via cell cultures. The minor ginsenosides under current scientific scrutiny include diol ginsenosides such as Rg3, Rh2, compound K, and triol ginsenosides Rg2 and Rh1, which are being touted as the next "anti-neoplastic pharmacophores," with better bioavailability and potency as compared to the major ginsenosides. This review aims at describing the strategies for ginsenoside production with special attention towards production of the minor ginsenosides from the major ginsenosides via microbial biotransformation, elicitations, and from heterologous expression systems.